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The My Lai massacre will always be a disturbing memory in the American conscience and will often resurface in any discussion or evaluation of this pointless conflict. Amidst the brutal and grim Vietnam War, in the early hours of March 16, 1968, three platoons of US soldiers from “Charlie Company” were deployed by helicopters to the Son My region. They were tasked with a search-and-destroy operation, instructed to eliminate National Liberation Front (North Vietnamese) fighters – referred to as Viet Cong or VC by American troops – who were believed to be active in the area. According to US Army commanders, anyone discovered in the area was deemed to be Viet Cong or active sympathisers, leading to the troops being instructed to demolish their village. Lieutenant William Calley led 1 Platoon, which was dispatched to My Lai, a village with approximately 700 inhabitants. Calley was informed that he might encounter NLF members in the vicinity. Initially, the soldiers were merely keeping the villagers captive. They gathered the people in the heart of the small village known as My Lai, holding them at gunpoint and demanding that they reveal the hidden Viet Cong forces that the Americans suspected they were sheltering. The massacre commenced when an unidentified soldier abruptly stabbed a Vietnamese man with his bayonet. After fatally injuring one individual, he forcibly removed another from his location, threw the civilian into a well, and then threw a grenade in after him. This action did not explicitly violate any orders. Prior to entering the town, a soldier had inquired about whether they were supposed to harm the women and children."They're all VC," his commanding officer, Captain Ernest Medina , had replied. They were to kill, he told them , anything "walking, crawling or growing." The Murdered Children Subsequently, the rest of the soldiers imitated the actions of the initial man. In a matter of seconds, they began shooting a gathering of 15 to 20 women who were praying with their children. They proceeded to traverse the village, forcing the residents into ditches and shooting them in the head as they lay on the ground in blood and dirt. "A lot of women had thrown themselves on top of the children to protect them," a witness, Private Dennis Knoti , said afterward, testifying against William Calley, the only soldier who was ever convicted for the My Lai Massacre. "Then, the children who were old enough to walk got up and Calley began to shoot the children." 1st Platoon in Xom Lang gathered a large group of around 70–80 villagers and escorted them to an irrigation ditch east of the settlement. Despite pleas from women declaring they were not Viet Cong and attempting to protect their children, the soldiers, including Calley, ordered the villagers into the ditch and shot them dead. Private First Class Paul Meadlo testified that he used multiple M16 rifle magazines during the incident. He recalled shooting at elderly men and women, as well as teenagers and mothers with babies, believing they were all potentially armed with grenades and a threat. Meadlo also admitted to firing at civilians alongside Lieutenant Calley during another security sweep in My Lai. When PFC Michael Bernhardt entered the subhamlet of Xom Lang, the massacre was underway: I walked up and saw these guys doing strange things ... Setting fire to the hootches and huts and waiting for people to come out and then shooting them ... going into the hootches and shooting them up ... gathering people in groups and shooting them ... As I walked in you could see piles of people all through the village ... all over. They were gathered up into large groups. I saw them shoot an M79 grenade launcher into a group of people who were still alive. But it was mostly done with a machine gun. They were shooting women and children just like anybody else. We met no resistance and I only saw three captured weapons. We had no casualties. It was just like any other Vietnamese village – old papa-sans, women and kids. As a matter of fact, I don't remember seeing one military-age male in the entire place, dead or alive. Calley was not the sole individual responsible for killing children. Multiple witnesses disclosed the identities of other soldiers who, as per their accounts, had slaughtered women and infants. Ultimately, a large number of innocent civilians lost their lives — 347 as per the U.S. Army, and 504 as per the Vietnamese government. Conversely, only a single American soldier sustained injuries: Private Herbert Carter, who, amidst the chaos, inadvertently shot himself in the foot. Not a single Viet Cong combatant was found in the village. "As a matter of fact," Private First Class Michael Bernhardt, one of the men who revealed the massacre to the world, would later testify, "I don't remember seeing one military-age male in the entire place, dead or alive." According to the Peers Commission Investigation, the U.S. government allocated commission for inquiry into the incident, concluded at least 20 Vietnamese women and girls were raped during the Mỹ Lai massacre. Since there had been little research over the case other than that of the Peers Commission, which solely accounts the cases with explicit rape signs like torn cloth and nudity, the actual number of rapes are not easy to estimate. According to the reports, the rape victims ranged between the ages of 10 and 45, with nine being under 18. The sexual assaults included gang rapes and sexual torture. No U.S. serviceman was charged with rape. According to an eyewitness, as reported by Seymour Hersh in his book on the massacre, a woman was raped after her children were killed by the U.S. soldiers. Another Vietnamese villager also noticed soldiers rape a 13-year-old girl. The End Of The My Lai Massacre In the end, the killings were stopped by Hugh Thompson Jr., a U.S. Army helicopter pilot. He witnessed the violence from above, tried to save the injured, and then bravely landed his helicopter in the midst of danger, challenging his fellow soldiers to shoot him if they wanted to continue the massacre. Once the killings were over, he informed his superior about what had happened. In return, his superior gave him a medal and a citation that twisted the truth of the massacre, offering a reserved and polite commendation. It was expected that Thompson would accept the falsified citation, but instead, he chose to reject it. It wasn't until a year later that the truth was revealed. Initially, news outlets claimed that 128 Viet Cong had been located and eliminated in My Lai. However, after infantryman Tom Glen informed his superiors and aviator Ronald Ridenhour reached out to around 30 members of Congress urging them to expose the real events, the story started to gain national attention by the autumn of 1969. The Trial of William Calley Despite the revelation of the truth, hardly anyone faced consequences, with platoon leader William Calley bearing the full responsibility for the My Lai Massacre. Calley, the only one held accountable for the deaths of hundreds of innocent civilians, received a lenient sentence of house arrest after President Richard Nixon intervened to change his prison sentence. Following just three years of house arrest, a federal judge granted his release. The remaining soldiers accused in the massacre were either acquitted or had their charges dismissed, leaving justice elusive in the aftermath of the My Lai Massacre. US soldier Varnado Simpson testified in December 1969: “Everyone who went into the village had in mind to kill. We had lost a lot of buddies and it was a VC stronghold. We considered them either VC or helping the VC.” However, not a single Viet Cong combatant was found there. "As a matter of fact," Private Michael Bernhardt would testify, "I don't remember seeing one military-age male in the entire place, dead or alive.” It was not until November 1969 that the outside world learned about any of this, when a US soldier named Paul Meadlo confessed on television to killing "ten or fifteen men, women, and children" at My Lai. The true extent of the tragedy started to come to light, revealing that many hundreds of villagers had been slaughtered. Paul Meadlo Several US soldiers faced charges for the killings, but only Lieutenant William Calley was convicted as the rest were either acquitted or had the charges dropped. Calley, who had spoken earlier of “my troops getting massacred and mauled by an enemy I couldn’t see, an enemy I couldn’t feel, I couldn’t touch. . .” put forward the defence that he was in My Lai to hunt out communists and to destroy communism and that he was “only carrying out my orders, which were to hunt out the NLF.” It was true that “Charlie Company,” to which Calley belonged, had earlier lost five men killed by booby traps and others had been wounded by these unseen weapons. But Calley was found guilty of killing 109 civilians and sentenced to life imprisonment. However, after an intervention by President Richard Nixon this prison sentence was changed to house arrest. Three years later, Calley was granted his release by a federal judge. The number of casualties at My Lai is still a matter of debate. A memorial at the location honors 504 people, ranging in age from one to eighty-two years. Nevertheless, a U.S. Army investigation concluded that the official count of casualties was 347. On 16 March 2008, over a thousand individuals gathered, marking forty years since the massacre took place. The event brought together survivors, families of victims, and returning U.S. veterans. A woman, who was 8 years old during the incident, shared her experience, "Everyone in my family was killed in the Mỹ Lai massacre—my mother, my father, my brother and three sisters. They threw me into a ditch full of dead bodies. I was covered with blood and brains."

Joseph Ducreux, a painter hailing from Nancy, France, emerged onto the canvas of history during the waning years of the Ancien Régime. Born in 1735 into a milieu of minor aristocracy, Ducreux embarked upon his artistic journey amidst the tumultuous backdrop of pre-revolutionary France. His brushstrokes brushed against the contours of monarchy, as evidenced by his poignant depiction of Louis XVI in what would be the monarch's final portrait before the guillotine claimed his fate. Portrait of Louis XVI (1754-1793), King of France Drawing with chalk and charcoal by Joseph Ducreux (1735-1802) The winds of change swept Ducreux across the English Channel, where he sought refuge in London alongside numerous fellow aristocrats in the throes of the French Revolution. Yet, the allure of Paris proved irresistible, and Ducreux returned to his homeland in 1793, poised to navigate the tempestuous currents of revolution and reinvention. In the twilight years of his life, Ducreux's artistic endeavours found solace under the tutelage of Jacques-Louis David, a luminary of the Parisian art scene and a confidant amidst the chaos of revolution. It was during this period that Ducreux's home blossomed into a sanctuary for creatives, a convivial salon where artists and musicians converged in a symphony of creativity and camaraderie. Ducreux's oeuvre bore the hallmark of portraiture, with luminaries such as Choderlos de Laclos and Maria Theresa of Austria immortalised upon his canvases. Yet, it is his self-portraits that transcend the boundaries of time and convention, capturing the essence of the artist in a kaleidoscope of unconventional poses and expressions. His self-portraits, characterised by exaggerated, mime-like postures, defy the norms of classical portraiture, offering glimpses into the depths of human emotion and expression. From the evocative "surprise in terror" to the enigmatic "silence", Ducreux's visage leaps from the canvas, captivating viewers with its theatricality and dynamism. However, it is his unconventional "Self-portrait of the Artist in the Guise of a Mocker" that has garnered enduring fascination in the digital age. Since 2009, this anachronistic masterpiece has found new life as a meme, its archaic expression lending itself to whimsical reinterpretations and witty captions in the realm of social media.

The notion of the British conquest of India masks a deeper truth. In the late 18th century, it wasn't the British government, but a perilously unregulated private company, located in a small London office and led by an unstable sociopath named Robert Clive, that seized control. Established in 1600, The East India Company stands as one of the most influential yet controversial entities in British history. Originally chartered for trade with the East Indies, its dominion eventually extended across continents, leaving an indelible mark on global commerce and politics. However, beneath its opulent façade lay tales of exploitation, corruption, and scandal, revealing a darker side to its legacy. Queen Elizabeth I's grant of a royal charter to London merchants on December 31, 1600, marked the birth of the East India Trading Company. Initially focused on the spice trade, it swiftly expanded its reach, establishing trading posts and monopolizing commerce in regions like India, China, and Southeast Asia. Strategic alliances with local rulers facilitated the company's ascendancy, bolstering its economic and political power. Figures such as Sir Thomas Smythe and Sir Thomas Roe played pivotal roles in navigating diplomatic complexities and securing advantageous trade agreements. By the 18th century, the East India Trading Company had become an economic behemoth, dominating global trade routes and amassing immense wealth. Its control over key commodities such as tea, silk, and spices fuelled Britain's industrial revolution but came at a grave human cost. Exploitative practices, including unfair trade agreements, forced labour, and ruthless suppression of local competitors, tarnished its reputation. The Bengal Famine of 1770, exacerbated by the company's grain hoarding and exploitative land policies, resulted in the deaths of millions. The company's history is rife with scandals and controversies. The "Nabob of Arcot" scandal exposed rampant corruption, with company officials in India accepting bribes and kickbacks. The resulting outcry highlighted the depths of corruption within its administrative apparatus. The Bengal Famine of 1770, exacerbated by grain hoarding and exploitative land policies, resulted in the deaths of an estimated 10 million people. Military exploits further fuelled controversy. The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the First War of Independence, marks a pivotal moment in British colonial history. The uprising was fuelled by a confluence of economic, social, cultural, and religious grievances. Economic disparities, exacerbated by British land policies, had deeply impacted Indian farmers and landowners. Additionally, the introduction of new rifles with cartridges rumoured to be greased with cow and pig fat, offending both Hindu and Muslim soldiers' religious sensibilities, served as a catalyst for discontent among the Indian sepoys (native soldiers). The spark that ignited the rebellion occurred in Meerut on May 10, 1857, when sepoys, refused to use the new cartridges. The unrest quickly spread across northern and central India, encompassing regions such as Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi. It soon escalated into a full-fledged revolt against British rule. The rebellion saw the emergence of notable figures on both sides. Leaders such as Nana Sahib, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Bahadur Shah II (the last Mughal emperor), and Tatya Tope played significant roles in organizing resistance against British forces. On the British side, figures like Sir Colin Campbell, Sir Hugh Rose, and Sir Henry Lawrence led efforts to suppress the rebellion.  British officials and civilians faced brutal attacks, while Indian rebels suffered retaliatory massacres and punitive actions. The Siege of Lucknow, the Battle of Kanpur, and the Relief of Cawnpore are among the most notable engagements of the conflict. Despite initial successes, the Indian rebels ultimately faced defeat due to superior British military tactics, weaponry, and reinforcements. The rebellion was quelled by 1858, marking the end of the East India Company's rule in India and the beginning of direct British control under the British Crown, known as the British Raj. Bahadur Shah Zafar II breathed his last in a shabby wooden house in Rangoon (now Yangon) in 1862. That very day, his British captors buried him in an unmarked grave in a compound near the famous Shwedagon Pagoda. Defeated, demoralised and humiliated, it was an inglorious end for a man whose Mughal ancestors had for 300 years ruled a vast territory including modern-day India, Pakistan, large parts of Afghanistan and Bangladesh. Though his rule could not compare with that of illustrious ancestors like Akbar or Aurangzeb, he became the rallying point for the failed "Indian uprising" of 1857, when soldiers from undivided India rose against the British East India Company. The company's exploitative practices extended to its opium trade with China. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the East India Company controlled the opium trade between British-controlled India and China. The Company, with support from the British government, actively encouraged the cultivation of opium in India and its export to China. This trade was immensely profitable for the Company, as opium fetched high prices in China. However, the Chinese government, recognizing the harmful effects of opium addiction on its population and the drain of silver reserves to pay for opium imports, attempted to crack down on the trade. In 1839, the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed large quantities of opium belonging to British merchants, triggering the First Opium War. The East India Company played a central role in the conflict by providing military support to British forces. Company ships and troops were deployed to China to protect British interests and secure favourable terms for the opium trade. British victories in the First Opium War resulted in the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, which legalized the opium trade and ceded Hong Kong to Britain. The Second Opium War, which occurred from 1856 to 1860, saw similar involvement from the East India Company. Once again, Company forces participated in military campaigns against China, leading to further concessions and the expansion of British influence in China. Overall, the East India Company's involvement in the Opium Wars illustrates its role in promoting and profiting from the opium trade, despite the devastating consequences for Chinese society and the erosion of China's sovereignty. Furthermore, the company's role in the transatlantic slave trade cannot be ignored. enslaved Africans to the Americas, primarily to British colonies such as Jamaica, Barbados, and Virginia. While the Company's primary focus was on trade with Asia, it occasionally engaged in the transatlantic slave trade to meet the labour demands of its colonies in the Caribbean and North America. The Company's involvement in the slave trade primarily revolved around supplying goods used in the trade rather than directly transporting slaves. It supplied various commodities, including textiles, metalware, and firearms, which were traded for enslaved Africans on the West African coast. Additionally, the Company's ships occasionally transported enslaved Africans as part of broader trading ventures. While these voyages were not as frequent or extensive as those undertaken by dedicated slave-trading companies, they nonetheless contributed to the perpetuation of the transatlantic slave trade and the exploitation of enslaved labour in the Americas. In 1874, after decades of mismanagement and scandal, the British government dissolved the East India Trading Company. Its demise was a culmination of several factors, including economic mismanagement, political corruption, and increasing public scrutiny of its activities. Economic Decline: By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Company faced significant financial challenges. Its monopoly on trade had been eroded, competition from other European powers had intensified, and its military expenditures in maintaining control over its territories had strained its resources. Additionally, the Company's role in the opium trade with China, while lucrative, was politically contentious and morally controversial. Political Reforms: The Regulating Act of 1773 and subsequent Acts of Parliament aimed to reform the Company's governance and oversight. These measures sought to address the rampant corruption and inefficiency within the Company's administrative apparatus, but they also weakened its autonomy and control over its territories. Revolts and Rebellions: The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, dealt a severe blow to the Company's authority in India. The widespread uprising among Indian soldiers and civilians against British rule exposed the Company's vulnerabilities and prompted calls for its dissolution. Public Outcry: Scandals and controversies surrounding the Company's activities, including corruption, exploitation, and human rights abuses, sparked public outrage in Britain. Reformers and abolitionists criticized the Company's role in perpetuating slavery, supporting the opium trade, and suppressing indigenous peoples in its colonies. Government Intervention: Amid mounting pressure and public outcry, the British government intervened to address the Company's mismanagement and abuses. The Government of India Act of 1858 transferred control of British India from the Company to the British Crown, effectively ending the Company's rule in India. Subsequent legislation, including the India Act of 1874, led to the formal dissolution of the Company and the absorption of its assets and territories into the British Empire. References: Dalrymple, William. The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019. Marshall, P. J. The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America, c.1750-1783. Oxford University Press, 2005. Bowen, H. V. The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756-1833. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Verna Erikson is a name that may not resonate widely in contemporary discourse, yet her work and contributions as a social advocate, particularly in Finland, form an important part of the country’s social history. Known primarily for her activism and humanitarian work, Erikson played a pivotal role in advancing the welfare of the underprivileged in Finnish society during the early 20th century. Early Life and Education Verna Erikson was born in 1882 in Finland, a country which at the time was an autonomous Grand Duchy under the Russian Empire. Her early years were shaped by a sense of social responsibility that would later guide her career and activism. She grew up in a middle-class family that valued education, and this emphasis on learning allowed her to pursue academic studies at a time when women’s access to higher education was still limited. Erikson’s education, while modest by modern standards, would later become one of her most powerful tools in her advocacy work. Finland at the turn of the century was undergoing significant socio-political changes. The country was witnessing a rising nationalist movement, which aimed for greater autonomy from Russian rule, while also grappling with the industrialisation that was transforming the traditional agricultural economy. It was within this context of rapid social change that Erikson began to direct her attention towards the plight of those who were often left behind in these transitions. Social Advocacy and Labour Rights One of Erikson’s most significant areas of focus was the condition of working-class women, many of whom were employed in low-wage jobs under harsh conditions. In particular, she became involved in labour rights movements aimed at improving the working conditions for women in Finland’s emerging industrial sector. Her advocacy was centred on the need for better wages, safer working environments, and access to education and healthcare for women workers. Verna Erikson’s approach was characterised by its practicality. She worked closely with grassroots organisations and labour unions, pushing for reforms through policy rather than protests or strikes. Her calm, measured approach earned her the respect of both workers and policymakers, allowing her to act as a bridge between these two often-opposed groups. This ability to mediate between different social classes was one of her key strengths, helping to bring about meaningful, if incremental, changes to labour laws in Finland. Women’s Rights and Suffrage Alongside her labour advocacy, Erikson was deeply involved in the Finnish women’s rights movement. Finland was one of the first countries in the world to grant women the right to vote and stand for election, doing so in 1906. This early progress in gender equality, however, did not eliminate the structural barriers women faced in Finnish society, and Erikson was keenly aware of this. She campaigned for equal educational opportunities for women and girls, believing that education was the cornerstone of achieving greater gender equality. Her work in this area was not limited to theoretical discourse. Erikson was involved in organising practical efforts to provide women with the skills and knowledge they needed to navigate a rapidly modernising world. In particular, she championed vocational training programmes for women, which would allow them to pursue careers beyond traditional domestic roles. Humanitarian Work Verna Erikson’s commitment to social justice was also evident in her humanitarian work. She was actively involved in various charities and organisations aimed at helping the most vulnerable in society, particularly during times of crisis. Her work in the aftermath of World War I, for example, was crucial in providing aid to Finnish families who had been displaced or impoverished by the conflict. Erikson’s efforts extended beyond mere charity, as she sought to address the underlying social issues that perpetuated poverty and inequality in Finnish society. Her humanitarian work was informed by a broader view of society’s responsibility towards its citizens. Erikson believed that the state had an obligation to ensure the welfare of all its people, particularly those who were most vulnerable. This belief in collective responsibility underpinned much of her work, whether in labour rights, women’s rights, or humanitarian aid. Legacy and Influence Verna Erikson’s legacy is one of steady and sustained effort in the pursuit of social justice. While she may not have been a revolutionary figure, her work helped to lay the groundwork for many of the social reforms that would come to define Finnish society in the 20th century. Her emphasis on the importance of education, gender equality, and labour rights continues to resonate in Finland today. Her influence can also be seen in the broader Nordic model of social welfare, which prioritises social equality, comprehensive public services, and the rights of workers. Erikson’s life and work were emblematic of the kind of quiet but persistent activism that has played a critical role in shaping the modern welfare state in Finland and other Nordic countries. While Verna Erikson may not be widely known outside academic and historical circles, her contributions remain significant in understanding the development of social advocacy and welfare policies in Finland. Her life serves as a reminder of the impact that dedicated, long-term social activism can have, even if it does not always receive public recognition during one’s lifetime.

Between the years of 1484 and 1750, Western Europe would bear witness to a staggering toll: over 200,000 women faced torture, burning, or hanging following accusations of witchcraft. This period was marked by a fervent pursuit of alleged witches, driven by religious zeal, societal anxieties, and political instability. In a single year, between 1645 and 1646, the notorious Witchfinder General, Matthew Hopkins, orchestrated a campaign of terror in England's East Anglia, resulting in the arrest and execution of approximately 300 individuals accused of witchcraft. However, over the border in Wales it was a different story... Origins of Witchcraft in North Wales: In the context of North Wales, where ancient Celtic traditions intersect with medieval superstitions, the exploration of witchcraft takes on a nuanced complexity. The origins of our local witchcraft can be traced back to the aforementioned ancient Celtic tribes who inhabited the region. These early inhabitants, deeply attuned to the rhythms of nature, revered the land and its mystical forces. Among them were the druids, the revered priestly caste who served as intermediaries between the mortal realm and the divine. Anglesey, with its dense forests and sacred groves, was believed to be a bastion of druidic activity. The Influence of Druidism: The earliest mention of Druids comes during the 1st century BC, referring to druidae in Gaul (France) and Britain, who were wise men, observers of natural phenomena and moral philosophers. Similar to the druids were the bards ( bardoi ) - singers and poets, and diviners ( vates ), who interpreted sacrifices in order to foretell the future. Druids and bards were common in medieval Welsh and Irish texts, probably giving account of much earlier oral tradition, passed on by word of mouth. In Wales, the roles and privileges of bards related to laws set down by Hywel Dda in the 10th century AD. During the 18th century, druids came to be seen as the ancestors of the bards, the praise poets, musicians and genealogists, who flourished in Welsh medieval society. The Roman historian Tacitus, in his work "Agricola," attests to the significance of Anglesey in druidic tradition. He recounts how the Roman general Agricola launched a military campaign to suppress the druids and their influence on the island in 60 CE, underscoring the island's reputation as a stronghold of ancient wisdom. Tacitus goes on to vividly recounts the crushing of a druidic stronghold on Anglesey by the Roman army, leading some to infer that Llyn Cerrig Bach was a druidic site. "On the beach stood the adverse array [of Britons], a serried mass of arms and men, with women flitting between the ranks. In the style of Furies, in robes of deathly black and with disheveled hair, they brandished their torches; while a circle of Druids, lifting their hands to heaven and showering imprecations, struck the troops with such an awe at the extraordinary spectacle that, as though their limbs were paralysed, they exposed their bodies to wounds without an attempt at movement. Then, reassured by their general, and inciting each other never to flinch before a band of females and fanatics, they charged behind the standards, cut down all who met them, and enveloped the enemy in his own flames. The next step was to install a garrison among the conquered population, and to demolish the groves consecrated to their savage cults; for they considered it a pious duty to slake the altars with captive blood and to consult their deities by means of human entrails." - Tacitus The Law and Witchcraft During the period encompassing the Acts of Union from 1536 to 1543, Wales found itself brought under the dominion of English rule. However, a striking departure from the punitive measures and executions prevalent in English witchcraft trials emerged within the Welsh legal landscape. Instead of deference to ecclesiastical courts as seen in England, Wales leaned heavily on its pre-existing legal framework, rooted in the ancient customs of Welsh law. This adherence to traditional Welsh law, known as Cyfraith Hywel, manifested in a markedly different approach to witchcraft cases. Unlike the harsh punitive measures employed in English courts, which often resulted in executions and severe penalties, Welsh legal tradition prioritised reconciliation and harmony within the community. Central to this ethos was the emphasis on compensating the victim rather than exacting punitive punishment upon the accused. Trials and Accusations During the tumultuous 16th and 17th centuries, a mere 37 witchcraft prosecutions unfolded in the confines of Wales. This figure, minuscule when juxtaposed against the harrowing tally of 200,000 executions that plagued Western Europe during the same epoch, underscores Wales' distinct approach to the witchcraft phenomenon. Out of these 37 suspects, a mere 8 were found guilty, with a 5 receiving the ultimate punishment of death, while the remainder likely faced acquittal. Notably, all recorded cases, as elucidated by Welsh Historian Kelsea Rees of Liverpool Hope University, were confined to the northern reaches of Wales, particularly in close proximity to the Anglo-Welsh border. 1594 bears witness to the first recorded execution of a purported witch. In Llandyrnog, Gwen ferch Ellis, aged 42, met her demise at the hands of justice. Renowned for her healing prowess, Gwen's descent into accusation stemmed from an alleged malevolent turn. Central to her trial was the discovery of a charm inscribed in reverse, a damning testament to the supposed practice of bewitching. Gwen's fate was sealed with a sentence of death, marking a somber milestone in Welsh legal history. In 1622, the township of Caernarfon bore witness to the tragic demise of three siblings, all accused of witchcraft and condemned to death. Lowri ferch Evan, Agnes ferch Evan, and Rhydderch ap Evan, hailing from a single family, faced accusations surrounding the demise of Margaret Hughes, the wife of a local gentleman, and the alleged bewitchment of their daughter, Mary. Despite medical conjecture suggesting Mary's afflictions may have been symptomatic of a stroke, due to the lameness of her left arm, feet, and the complete loss of her voice due to loss of function in her tongue) the trio's fate was sealed with a guilty verdict. In 1655, Beaumaris became the backdrop for yet another grim chapter in Welsh witchcraft history. Margaret ferch Richard, a widow in her mid-to-late 40s, found herself ensnared in accusations of witchcraft. Accused of orchestrating the demise of Gwen Meredith, another woman, Margaret faced the full force of the 1604 Witchcraft Act. Her conviction culminated in the ultimate penalty: death by hanging. In the year 1655, the village of Llanasa, Flintshire, played host to a trial shrouded in ambiguity. Dorothy Griffith stood accused of bewitching a traveling seaman, William Griffith, whose testimony painted a vivid picture of supernatural encounters and bewitching lights. However, amidst the fervour of accusation, Dorothy's innocence shone through, as corroborating testimonies from locals attested to her character and dispelled notions of malevolent intent. Despite the tense relations between the families and William's illness, Dorothy emerged unscathed from the trial, her name cleared and her freedom preserved. Dorothy Griffith's case stands as a poignant exemplar among 32 others, where accusations dissolved in the face of community solidarity and adherence to Welsh legal traditions. In these tales of acquittal, we glimpse the resilience of justice and the enduring spirit of communal support that defied the spectre of witchcraft hysteria in Wales. Early - Modern Beliefs Blessings were the act of protecting oneself or others from anything evil; they were considered part of everyday life during the early modern period. It was believed that good or evil could come to a person based on whether or not they had received a blessing. If someone did something that was considered to be unacceptable by the society in which they lived, it was important to seek a blessing in order to avoid some form of punishment. A curse , however, would often be done in order to inflict misfortune on someone's family or property. Formal cursing was the practice of involving God and hexing the wrongdoer, often on the knees with arms stretched toward Heaven. When someone had been cursed, it was common to have the curse removed by the person who had originally inflicted the curse. It was not unusual for people who resorted to cursing others to be thought of as using witchcraft. The history of witches and witchcraft in North Wales, with a particular focus on Anglesey's connection to paganism and the druids, offers a fascinating glimpse into the intersection of ancient beliefs, medieval superstitions, and modern interpretations. Through meticulous scholarship and a discerning eye, we can begin to unravel the complexities of this enigmatic aspect of Welsh heritage. References: Tacitus. "Agricola." Penguin Classics, 2009. Ellis, Peter Berresford. "The Druids." Constable, 1994. Davies, Owen. "Witchcraft, Magic and Culture, 1736-1951." Manchester University Press, 1999. Roberts, Gareth. "Witchcraft and Witch Trials in Wales." University of Wales Press, 2010. Roberts, Dewi. "Folklore of Wales." National Museum Wales, 2002.

Victor Lustig was a master of deception, infamous for his bold scams that spanned Europe and the United States in the early 20th century. Born in Hostinné, Bohemia, when it was part of Austria-Hungary, Lustig’s life was defined by cleverness, charm, and a remarkable criminal mind. He became most famous for selling the Eiffel Tower not just once, but twice, and for devising the notorious “Rumanian Box” scam. His name endures as one of history’s most skilful fraudsters. Early Life: The Making of a Con Artist Lustig’s upbringing in Bohemia revealed an early brilliance and adaptability. A natural linguist, he mastered several languages and excelled in academics. However, his mischievous tendencies, combined with a growing interest in gambling while studying in Paris, began steering him toward a life of deceit. It was also in these early years that Lustig acquired a distinctive scar on his face, the result of a jealous lover’s outburst—an incident that would become part of his colourful history. By the time he was 19, Lustig had ditched formal education and fully embraced a life of crime, relying on his sharp mind and knack for languages to pull off a string of clever scams. He started out on transatlantic ocean liners, where he set his sights on wealthy passengers. One of his early wins came when he pretended to be a Broadway producer, convincing people to invest in a show that didn’t even exist. But when World War I brought ocean travel to a halt, Lustig had to find new ways to hustle and ended up moving to the United States for fresh opportunities. The Eiffel Tower Scam: Selling Paris’ Crown Jewel Lustig’s most famous con went down in Paris in 1925 when he managed to sell the Eiffel Tower—not once, but twice. The idea came to him after reading a newspaper article about how expensive it was to maintain the tower, which had fallen into a bit of disrepair. The article hinted that the public might soon support tearing it down, and Lustig saw the perfect opening. He hired a skilled forger to whip up some fake government paperwork and then posed as a high-ranking French official, the Deputy Director-General of the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. Armed with these convincing documents, Lustig invited a group of Parisian scrap metal dealers to a secret meeting at a fancy hotel. Playing the part of the official, he told them he was in charge of selling off the Eiffel Tower because the city couldn’t afford to keep it anymore. Lustig explained that the sale needed to be conducted discreetly to avoid public outrage, and he had personally selected these dealers for their reputation as trustworthy businessmen. During the meeting, Lustig scrutinised the attendees, searching for the most gullible mark. He found his prey in André Poisson, an ambitious businessman eager to rise within Parisian high society. Poisson’s desire to secure the deal led to Lustig’s final move: a private meeting in which he subtly implied that a generous bribe would ensure Poisson’s success in winning the contract. Convinced that he was making a smart investment, Poisson handed over 70,000 francs to Lustig—ostensibly for both the bribe and the sale. Lustig then fled the country with his ill-gotten gains. Remarkably, Poisson was too ashamed to report the con to the authorities, and Lustig’s scam went unnoticed. Emboldened by his success, Lustig returned to Paris a few months later to try the scheme again. This time, however, his new mark grew suspicious and reported the scam to the police, forcing Lustig to flee to the United States to avoid arrest. Lustig being questioned by the police in 1935 Ten Commandments A set of instructions known as the "Ten Commandments for Con Men" has been attributed to Lustig: Be a patient listener (it is this, not fast talking, that gets a con man his coups). Never look bored. Wait for the other person to reveal any political opinions, then agree with them. Let the other person reveal religious views, then have the same ones. Hint at sex talk, but don't follow it up unless the other person shows a strong interest. Never discuss illness, unless some special concern is shown. Never pry into a person's personal circumstances (they'll tell you all eventually). Never boast – just let your importance be quietly obvious. Never be untidy. Never get drunk. Lustig after his sentencing The “Rumanian Box” Scam: A Machine That Prints Money Another one of Lustig’s signature cons was the “Rumanian Box” scam. This elaborate hoax involved a mahogany box that Lustig claimed could duplicate any currency inserted into it. The device was supposedly capable of producing an exact copy of a bill after six hours of processing. In reality, the box contained pre-loaded notes, allowing Lustig to trick his victims into believing it worked. To sell the illusion, Lustig would take a note from his victim, feed it into the box, and after waiting six hours, produce a matching bill—genuine, of course, because it had been pre-loaded. Once the victim was convinced, they would pay exorbitant sums to purchase the machine, believing it could print endless wealth. Lustig would pack the box with enough real bills to allow him to escape before the victim realised they had been swindled. One famous incident involved a Texas sheriff, whom Lustig duped into buying the machine for thousands of dollars. After discovering the ruse, the sheriff tracked Lustig down to Chicago, only to be conned again—Lustig convinced him that he had been operating the device incorrectly and even handed him counterfeit bills as compensation. This scam would eventually lead to Lustig’s downfall, as his involvement in counterfeiting caught the attention of American law enforcement. A Dangerous Gamble: Conning Al Capone In the 1930s, Lustig embarked on one of his riskiest ventures—conning the infamous mobster Al Capone. Lustig approached Capone with a business proposition, asking for a $50,000 investment in a supposed scheme. Instead of absconding with the money, Lustig simply stored it for two months before returning the full amount to Capone, explaining that the deal had fallen through. Capone, impressed by Lustig’s apparent honesty, rewarded him with $5,000 to help him “get back on his feet”. This seemingly small con, executed without direct theft, demonstrated Lustig’s mastery of manipulation and psychological finesse. The Fall of Victor Lustig Lustig’s criminal career finally came to an end in 1935. He had partnered with two men—William Watts, a pharmacist, and Tom Shaw, a chemist—to run a massive counterfeiting operation, printing and distributing tens of thousands of dollars’ worth of counterfeit currency. Dubbed “Lustig Money”, these counterfeit bills soon flooded the U.S. economy, prompting a federal investigation. Lustig’s downfall came not from law enforcement, but from betrayal. His mistress, angered by his infidelity, informed the authorities about his counterfeiting ring. Lustig was arrested in New York and charged with counterfeiting, but even then, he refused to give up his partners. His undoing came when investigators discovered a locker containing $51,000 in counterfeit notes and the printing plates used to create them. Lustig’s final act of defiance came when he managed to escape from prison, faking illness and climbing out of his cell using a homemade rope. However, he was recaptured less than a month later. Convicted of counterfeiting and his subsequent prison escape, Lustig was sentenced to 15 years in Alcatraz. He died of pneumonia in 1947 at the Federal Medical Centre in Springfield, Missouri, leaving behind a legacy of audacious cons and unmatched criminal ingenuity.

If you've worked in retail you'll know how boredom can often kick in. These industrious bookshop employees from The Librairie Mollat have found a novel way to combat this boredom, these are a sample from their Instagram feed.

Every once in a while this 2010 clip surfaces again online. What is seemingly a school play, thankfully isn't! The video was originally posted to YouTube under the title " Scarface School Play " in 2010, when it also went viral. But it was later revealed that the whole project was put together by music video director Marc Klasfeld. He did it with professional child actors in a theatre in Los Angeles' Koreatown. At the time, Klasfeld told the Los Angeles Times that it was "amusing" to see the outrage the video caused, adding that he wondered why the critics did not "speak out more against the sexualization of young girls in American culture or the relentless violence on screens of all sorts." Speaking to Entertainment Weekly Marc discussed his wider career as an established music video director. "A lot of people probably know this about me, but I've done hundreds upon hundreds of music videos, commercials, and virals. So for me, this was just one more thing that I did. It wasn't this one-off thing that I did. I did a movie. I did a comedy-satire about the Los Angeles riots called The L.A. Riot Spectacular . I've done dozens of controversial music videos. Just last year, I did a very popular viral called "Hammer Pants Dance." So this is something that is just part of what I do. There are many things that I'm uncredited for, too. But this one just happened to hit that certain nerve and just kind of took off into the pop culture heavens and just exploded. And it's been pretty interesting to watch." As for why video blew up so quickly, Klasfeld believes it's unfortunately right for the times. "Most people view America in a state of decline right now," he said. "And this really hits home for them in a way that they think something like this is actually possible in our society, morals have really slipped to this kind of level."

The 1800s was a century marked by significant changes in fashion, personal hygiene, and the concept of beauty. During this era, an array of grooming products and accessories became essential for both men and women. One such item was the vinaigre de toilette container, a small yet elegant vessel designed to hold scented vinegar. This aromatic elixir served multiple purposes, from masking unpleasant odours to providing a refreshing pick-me-up. The Origins of Vinaigre de Toilette The use of scented vinegar as a beauty and hygiene product can be traced back to ancient civilisations, including the Greeks and Romans. However, vinaigre de toilette as we know it today gained popularity in the 18th century and continued to evolve throughout the 19th century. It was used for a variety of purposes, such as a refreshing skin toner, a remedy for fainting spells, and a fragrant additive to bathwater. The Design of Vinaigre de Toilette Containers Vinaigre de toilette containers in the 1800s were designed with both practicality and aesthetics in mind. These containers were typically made of glass, porcelain, or silver, and they came in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Some featured intricate hand-painted designs, while others were adorned with elegant silver or gold accents. The stoppers, often made of cork or metal, were designed to seal the container and prevent evaporation of the precious scented vinegar. One of the most recognisable designs of vinaigre de toilette containers in the 1800s was the "chatelaine," a decorative belt hook or pin from which a variety of essential accessories dangled. These chatelaines often included vinaigre de toilette containers as one of the suspended items, highlighting their significance in a woman's daily life. Scented Vinegar Recipes The scented vinegar contained within these elegant containers was made using a variety of botanical ingredients, each imparting a unique fragrance and therapeutic properties. Common ingredients included herbs like lavender, rosemary, and mint, as well as spices like cloves and cinnamon. The recipes for vinaigre de toilette were closely guarded secrets in some cases, passed down through generations or kept within the confines of perfumeries. The Uses of Vinaigre de Toilette Vinaigre de toilette served a multitude of purposes in the 1800s. It was used to mask the unpleasant odors that were common in a time when daily bathing was not yet a widespread practice. The refreshing scent of the vinegar also helped revive the spirits, making it a popular choice during long carriage rides or on a hot summer day. Women would often dab a few drops on their handkerchiefs and use it as a subtle perfume. In addition, vinaigre de toilette was believed to have health benefits, as its aromatic properties were thought to combat fainting spells and alleviate headaches. Decline and Revival As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, vinaigre de toilette containers began to wane in popularity. Evolving hygiene practices and the advent of new fragrance products contributed to the decline of these ornate vessels. However, in recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in historical grooming rituals and scents. Some artisan perfumers have even revived traditional vinaigre de toilette recipes, and vintage vinaigre de toilette containers have become prized collectibles. Vinaigre de toilette containers in the 1800s were more than just elegant vessels; they were a testament to the changing notions of beauty, hygiene, and personal care during that era. These ornate containers held a scented elixir that not only masked odours but also added a touch of elegance and refreshment to daily life. While they may no longer be a common sight in the modern world, they offer a glimpse into a bygone era when grooming and self-care were elevated to an art form.

The Mabinogion finds its roots in the 14th-century manuscript known as the 'Red Book of Hergest.' This compilation comprises eleven tales of early Welsh literature, drawing deeply from the mystical realm of Celtic culture, weaving together elements of myth, folklore, tradition, and history. These narratives are believed to possess an ancient lineage, originating from the oral traditions of early Welsh bards. These Celtic storytellers traversed the landscapes of Britain and beyond, exchanging their tales in exchange for hospitality. The stories they shared were often retained in memory only, with the finer details embellished and expanded upon with each retelling. The term "Mabinogion" itself is derived from the Welsh word "mabinogi," which translates to "a tale of youth" or "a tale for young people." However, the stories contained within the Mabinogion are far from simple children's tales; instead, they are complex narratives that explore the depths of human experience and the supernatural realms. Characters and Stories: Central to the tales of the Mabinogion are a diverse cast of characters, each with their own unique traits and destinies. Among the most prominent figures are: Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed: The protagonist of the first branch begins with Pwyll, the prince of Dyfed, out hunting in the Gorsedd Arberth, a mystical place in the Welsh landscape. During his hunt, Pwyll notices a pack of hounds chasing a stag, but despite their efforts, the stag remains elusive. Pwyll decides to set his own hounds to chase the stag, and when they finally catch up to it, he hears a strange cry and a horn being blown. Following the sound, Pwyll comes across a clearing in the forest where he encounters a group of horsemen dressed in shimmering gold and silver attire, with horses of remarkable beauty. Among them is Arawn, the lord of Annwn, the Otherworld. Arawn recognizes Pwyll and reveals that he has been watching him, impressed by his bravery and honor. Arawn proposes a unique and mutually beneficial agreement: Pwyll will take Arawn's place in ruling Annwn for a year and a day, while Arawn will take Pwyll's place in ruling Dyfed. Accepting the challenge, Pwyll finds himself in the realm of Annwn, where he proves himself by defeating Arawn's enemy, Hafgan, in a fierce battle. Despite Hafgan's magical strength, Pwyll emerges victorious, upholding his honor and securing Arawn's dominion over Annwn. Meanwhile, in Dyfed, Arawn takes on Pwyll's appearance and rulership. He quickly gains the respect and admiration of Pwyll's people, proving himself to be a wise and just ruler. When the agreed-upon year and a day have passed, Pwyll returns to Dyfed, where he resumes his rightful place as prince. However, his adventures are far from over. He encounters the beautiful maiden Rhiannon, whose father, Hefeydd Hen, proposes a marriage between her and Pwyll. Despite initial challenges and misunderstandings, including the mysterious disappearance of Rhiannon and accusations of foul play, Pwyll ultimately wins her hand in marriage. Rhiannon : A central figure in the first branch, Rhiannon is a powerful and enigmatic figure associated with themes of sovereignty and motherhood. Rhiannon is introduced as a beautiful and enigmatic maiden, the daughter of Hefeydd Hen, a nobleman and ruler of the realm of Dyfed. Her name, which means "Great Queen," reflects her regal stature and importance in the narrative. The tale begins with the marriage proposal of Rhiannon to Pwyll, the prince of Dyfed. Despite her initial reluctance, Rhiannon agrees to marry Pwyll, who proves himself worthy of her hand through various trials and challenges. However, their joy is short-lived as rumors begin to circulate, accusing Rhiannon of foul play and witchcraft. The crux of the accusation lies in the mysterious disappearance of Rhiannon and Pwyll's newborn son, which occurs on the night of his birth. Rhiannon's maidservants, in a misguided attempt to protect her, falsely claim that she had eaten her own child. Despite her protestations of innocence, Rhiannon is unjustly accused and subjected to punishment, including serving as a gatekeeper and offering rides on her own back to visitors at the court of Dyfed. This unjust treatment continues for several years, during which Rhiannon maintains her dignity and grace, refusing to be broken by the cruelty of others. Eventually, the truth of Rhiannon's innocence is revealed when the missing child is found and returned to her. It is discovered that he had been abducted by a monstrous creature and raised in isolation. The child is restored to his rightful place, and Rhiannon is vindicated, her honor and reputation restored. Bran the Blessed: A legendary figure in Welsh mythology, Bran was a giant and a king, renowned for his wisdom, strength, and benevolence. He was the son of Llŷr, a powerful deity associated with the sea, and ruled over the island of Britain. The story of Bran unfolds in several branches of the Mabinogi, particularly in the Second Branch, known as "Branwen ferch Llŷr" or "Branwen, Daughter of Llŷr." In this tale, Bran plays a pivotal role in the tragic events that unfold. The story begins with the marriage of Bran's sister, Branwen, to the King of Ireland, Matholwch. Despite initial celebrations, the union becomes marred by conflict and betrayal. Bran's half-brother, Efnysien, out of jealousy and spite, mutilates Matholwch's horses, sparking a war between the two kingdoms. In an effort to resolve the conflict, Bran offers a magical cauldron as a gift of peace to Matholwch. This cauldron, known as the Cauldron of Rebirth, had the power to revive the dead, making it a valuable treasure. Despite the attempt at reconciliation, the war escalates, resulting in tragic consequences. Branwen, Bran's beloved sister, suffers greatly, enduring abuse and mistreatment at the hands of her husband. Eventually, Branwen sends a magical message to Bran, pleading for his aid. Bran leads a great expedition to Ireland to rescue his sister and confront Matholwch. The encounter culminates in a cataclysmic battle, during which Bran is mortally wounded by a poisoned spear. Knowing that his time is limited, Bran instructs his companions to cut off his head and take it back to Britain. Even in death, Bran's head retains its mystical properties, providing protection and prosperity to the land. It is said that Bran's head continued to speak and provide counsel to his people for many years, ensuring peace and prosperity for his kingdom. Blodeuwedd : A complex and multifaceted character, Blodeuwedd is introduced in the fourth branch as a woman created from flowers by the wizard Gwydion and his uncle, Math, the King of Gwynedd, as told in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi, known as "Math fab Mathonwy." Blodeuwedd, whose name translates to "Flower-Face" or "Face of Flowers," was fashioned as a bride for Lleu Llaw Gyffes, a hero and prince. Initially, Blodeuwedd is a beautiful and captivating companion to Lleu. However, her story takes a dark turn as she becomes embroiled in a complex web of deception, betrayal, and tragedy. Blodeuwedd's downfall begins when she falls in love with another man, Gronw Pebr, a lord of Penllyn. Together, they conspire to kill Lleu, fearing his power and dominance over them. Gronw crafts a plan to assassinate Lleu, exploiting a vulnerability that Lleu had confided in Blodeuwedd: he could only be killed under very specific circumstances, namely by a weapon that had been crafted during the hours of dusk and dawn, while standing with one foot on a bath and the other on the back of a goat. Blodeuwedd plays a crucial role in luring Lleu into the fatal trap. She persuades him to demonstrate the position in which he could be killed, and as he assumes the stance, Gronw hurls the spear at him, mortally wounding him. However, Lleu does not die outright. Instead, he transforms into an eagle and flees into the wilderness. Gwydion, devastated by his nephew's fate, embarks on a quest to find and heal Lleu. After a series of trials and tribulations, Gwydion manages to track down Lleu, who is now perched in the form of an eagle atop an oak tree. Through a series of magical incantations, Gwydion breaks the enchantment placed upon Lleu and restores him to his human form. Meanwhile, Blodeuwedd's treachery does not go unpunished. When Gwydion catches up with her, he transforms her into an owl as a form of punishment for her betrayal and deceit. As an owl, Blodeuwedd is condemned to wander the night, forever alone and lamenting her tragic fate. These are just a few examples of the rich tapestry of characters that populate the stories of the Mabinogion, each contributing to the overarching narrative and thematic depth of the collection. Exactly how these stories found their way into the written form is unclear, however the tales range from Celtic mythology to the better known accounts of the adventures of Arthur and his knights. The four ‘mabinogi’ tales, from which the Mabinogion takes its name, are thought to be the earliest dating from the 11th century. These include:- Pwyll, which tells of how a Prince of Dyfed takes the place of the King of the Underworld; Branwen, which tells how the unjust treatment of a queen starts a war in Ireland; Manawydan involves overcoming an enchanter and the rescue of a mother and child, and Math the Lord of Gwynedd who ends up turning his nephews into beasts. The remaining stories within the Mabinogion delve into the myth of the Arthurian legend, focusing on the exploits of King Arthur and his noble knights. Culhwych and Olwen and The Dream of Rhonabwy both unfold within the grandeur of Arthur's Court, showcasing a vivid array of knights who populate this legendary realm. In Culhwych and Olwen, Arthur's Court serves as the backdrop for a tale steeped in adventure and romance, where a roster of Arthur's valiant knights embark on a quest of epic proportions. Similarly, The Dream of Rhonabwy weaves a captivating narrative that intertwines the exploits of Arthur and his knights with the enchanting realms of fairy heroes and Celtic warriors. The other Arthurian tales found within the Mabinogion, namely The Lady of the Fountain, Geraint the Son of Erbin, and Peredur the Son of Evrawc, delve into the quests and adventures undertaken by Arthur's chivalrous knights. Notably, Peredur the Son of Evrawc contains one of the earliest references to the legendary Grail quest, adding a mystical dimension to the Arthurian saga. Originally translated and edited by Lady Charlotte Guest in 1840, the Mabinogion stands as a testament to Welsh culture and heritage. Lady Guest's profound dedication to the Welsh language and traditions extended beyond her literary pursuits, as she played a pivotal role in reviving Welsh festivals and promoting the Eisteddfod, fostering a renewed appreciation for Wales' rich literary heritage. the title "The Mabinogion" is a relatively modern creation, coined mistakenly by Lady Charlotte Guest herself. The term "mabinogion," which she presumed to be the plural form of "mabinogi," appears only once in the manuscripts she translated and is commonly regarded as a transcription error. Originally, "mabinogi" stemmed from the word "mab," signifying "boyhood" or "youth," but evolved to signify "tale of a hero's boyhood" and eventually, simply, "a tale." It is these initial four heroic narratives, or the four "branches" of Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan, and Math, that constitute The Mabinogi proper. A singular character, Pryderi, serves as the common thread binding all four branches. In the initial tale, he is born and nurtured, ultimately inheriting a kingdom and entering into marriage. Although scarcely mentioned in the second narrative, his presence looms large in the third as he becomes ensnared by enchantment, only to be later freed. Tragically, in the fourth branch, he meets his demise in battle. These tales delve into profound themes such as the cycle of downfall and redemption, unwavering loyalty, the complexities of marriage, enduring love, fidelity, the plight of the wronged spouse, and even the taboo of incest. Set against a backdrop of an otherworldly and enchanting landscape, which mirrors the western coastline of south and north Wales, the stories teem with magical elements. Here, one encounters mystical white horses that materialise unexpectedly, formidable giants, captivating and astute women, and valiant heroes who embody the epitome of courage and honour.

I was born in 1899 in the village of Pokrovskoe in the county of Tobolsk. My parents are peasants, simple people. Our family consists of: father, mother, grandfather (my father’s father), my brother, sister and myself. We all live happily together but sometimes I get cross with my brother and sister, but with my sister I get cross all the time. My father plays an important role because the Sovereign knows him and loves him.” As a young teenager, Maria Grigorievna Rasputin penned these straightforward words in her unpublished diaries. However, from her humble beginnings in rural Siberia to her later life in sunny Los Angeles, simplicity and ease were never part of Maria's journey. During her early childhood, Maria belonged to a relatively affluent peasant family. Her mother was a pragmatic and industrious woman, while her father, Grigori, served as a Starets—an unordained holy man who traversed the nation, preaching and providing solace to those in distress. Right from the outset, Maria displayed a healthy sense of skepticism, which stayed with her throughout her life. She and her brother and sister dreaded the long hours of enforced prayer and fasting “for which everything, anniversaries or penitence’s, served as an excuse.” In 1906, the family’s life was transformed when Grigori, who would become known to history simply as “Rasputin,” was introduced to the royal family in St. Petersburg. He was soon credited by the Empress Alexandra for saving the life of Alexi, the hemophiliac heir to the Russian throne. In 1910, Maria and her sister, Varvara, were sent to live with their father in St. Petersburg so that they could be transformed into “little ladies.” Her mother had no interest in big city living and stayed in Pokrovskoe with her son. Since their father was busy with royal and other duties, their longtime family servant (and Rasputin’s reputed mistress) was tasked with the children’s care. “She found a governess to look after us and take us out, and helped us to make up for lost time by making good the considerable gaps in our early education,” Maria remembered. “Alas! It was a hard task, hard for her without any doubt, but hard also for the two little savages whom she tried to make into young ladies!” Maria eventually settled into life in Saint Petersburg and became her father’s unofficial hostess. As Rasputin’s influence grew, visitors (mostly women) came to their small apartment all through the day and night waiting for their chance to meet with the mystical and powerful “little father.” To Maria, Rasputin was just an unsophisticated, simple man with magnetic clear blue eyes, beautiful long hands, and a peasant’s belief in the power of prayer. In her memories he was a strict father, blessing them every night before they went to bed, and making sure the girls were educated and pious: We were never allowed to go out alone, rarely were we permitted to go to a matinee, and later on, when young men began to gravitate about us, he proved to be the strictest of mentors. None of them had a right to more than half an hour’s tete-a-tete; after that had elapsed, my father burst into the room and showed the poor lad the door. But what was not limited to half an hour was the length of time devoted to prayers! Every morning and night we prayed together. On Sundays we passed the morning at church, and the greater part of the afternoon in worship. My sister and I found these hours spent on our knees on the stone floor exceedingly long, though I must admit that the fashion of the time, with its long skirts, allowed us to cheat a little by clandestinely sitting on our heels when our father’s eyes were not fixed upon us! However, there were dark undercurrents swirling around the little family. To most, Rasputin was more than just a humble holy man. He was a drunk, demonic, womanizing charlatan who had bewitched the deeply religious Empress Alexandra in her desperation to save her only son. Rasputin’s influence over the royal couple grew as the geopolitical situation surrounding the Romanovs grew more and more dire. Although Maria would admit in her old age that there were many things going on that she did not know about, at the time her life seemed charmed. She became friends with Nicholas and Alexandra’s four daughters, and would remember their grace–how they would enter a room at Tsarskoye Selo so quietly that one could not even hear their feet touch the ground. But this fairytale life did not last long. Rasputin, who had become more of a drunk than ever, still insisted to his daughters that he would not have “people uttering the filth about you that they do about me.” Russia slid into domestic chaos, and brutal World War I fighting raged. Rasputin, “the mad monk,” became an easy scapegoat for angry aristocratic and revolutionary forces. One freezing December night in 1916, Rasputin, lured with the promise of a late night party, was murdered by Prince Felix Yusupov and his associates. A few days later Rasputin’s frozen body was found in the Malaya Nevka River. It is rumored that Maria had to identify the body of her father, which had been bludgeoned, shot and finally drowned. Maria and her sister’s lives were transformed overnight. Maria noted bitterly that at his funeral, “Many places in the little chapel were empty, for the crowds that had knocked at my father’s door while he still lived to ask some service of him neglected to come and offer up a prayer for him once he was dead.” The Imperial Family stuck by the sisters, and they spent many hours at Tsarskoye Selo with the royal children. But, soon this safety net was ripped away as well, when the long brewing Russian civil war began. On her last visit to the palace, Maria remembered the cold but kindly Empress telling them, “Go my children, leave us, leave us quickly, we are being imprisoned.” Maria and Varvara escaped to their mother’s home in Pokrovskoe. In 1917, Maria married her “dear friend,” Boris Soloviev, a man of questionable character who many considered her father’s successor. The couple lived a chaotic, fugitive existence, attempting to save the royal family from their imprisonment in Siberia, and constantly on the run from the Red Army. When Boris was imprisoned, Maria got him out of jail by bribing a guard with 1,000 rubles. They eventually escaped to continental Europe, wandering from “capital to capital,” living the nomadic existence common to many formerly genteel expatriates after the wars. Maria gave birth to two daughters, Tatiana and Maria. They settled in Paris, where Boris eked out a living as a soap factory worker, night porter and car washer. Boris died in 1926, according to Maria, “worn out with privations and the work beyond his strength that he accepted in order to preserve us from dying of hunger.” Maria was alone, but at least she was alive. The entire family of Nicholas and Alexandra had been murdered at Yekaterinburg’s Ipatiev House, the “house of special purpose,” in 1918. Her mother and brother disappeared into the Soviet gulags of Siberia. Her sister, Varvara, died in Moscow in 1924–some said of starvation, others said of poison. But Maria soldiered on, supporting her daughters as a lady’s maid and companion to a rich Russian exile. Then, Maria told the Los Angeles Times , “absolutely unexpected, I got offer to be cabaret dancer in Bucharest. This was because of my name, not because of my dancing.” For several years Maria danced across Europe, allowing herself to be billed as “the daughter of the mad monk.” In 1929, she published her first book, The Real Rasputin , a strongly worded defense of her father. Soon Maria took on another career- that of an animal trainer in a traveling circus. With her characteristic sense of humor, Maria said: “They ask me if I mind to be in a cage with animals, and I answer, ‘Why not? I have been in a cage with Bolsheviks.’” She also published another book about Rasputin, 1932’s My Father . In it she said her reason for writing the book was not literary: If I thought myself capable of undertaking a literary career I should not today be struggling to earn my daily bread as a trainer of wild animals…it is my desire to consecrate myself to a task, direct the whole of my life towards one goal, that of giving back to my father his true character. In 1935, Maria accompanied the Ringling Brothers Circus to America. “To come to America was my dream for many years,” Maria told a reporter for the Los Angeles Times . Americans were unsurprisingly fascinated by Maria, and papers across the country carried pictures of her with captions like, “European wild animal trainer and self-declared daughter of Russia’s ‘mad monk’ tries to hypnotize a circus elephant in Philadelphia.” She was also featured along with other Ringling Brothers stars on the back of a Wheaties box, extolling the cereal as “the breakfast of champions.” Maria officially immigrated to America in 1937 (her daughters stayed in Europe) and gave up her circus career after being badly mauled by a bear. She married Gregory Bern, an electrical engineer she had known in Russia. They settled in Los Angeles, but were divorced in 1946. According to Maria, Bern had called her bad names, struck her, and finally left. “He just deserted me, that’s all,” she told the judge. After her divorce, Maria moved to a comfortable duplex in Silverlake, a neighborhood in Los Angeles with a large Russian population. After decades on the run, she had finally found the home where she would live out the rest of her long life. Ever the adaptive survivor, she went to work as a machinist at the shipyards in San Pedro. “Lathe, drill press–I operate them all,” she explained . “You name it, I do it.” During the Red Scare, Maria was ironically rumored to be a communist, leading her to write a strongly worded letter to the Los Angeles Times in 1948 : I am constantly being persecuted and branded a communist due to my name being Maria Rasputin, daughter of Gregory Rasputin, known as the “Mad Monk of Russia.” I left Russia 28 years ago and am now a naturalized American citizen, for which privilege I thank God every night, as I love the United States of America from the bottom of my heat. I wish to announce publically that I am not a communist even though my name is Maria Rasputin, daughter of Gregory Rasputin. After retiring from the shipyards, Maria continued to support herself with social security payments and gigs as a babysitter and caregiver. Known to many as a friendly, amiable lady, she lived a quiet, secluded life, faithfully attending the neighborhood Russian Orthodox Church almost every week. She would give interviews when she needed money, her story often changing depending on who was interviewing her. She briefly believed that Anna Anderson , an impostor who claimed to be the murdered Grand Duchess Anastasia, was telling the truth, but later retracted her support. Throughout her interviews one thing remained constant. She never wavered from the belief that her father was a good, kindly man, who had been vilified by a manipulative society that he was too simple to understand. Maria Rasputin’s last book, Rasputin: The Man Behind The Myth was published in 1977, shortly after she died. Rasputin wrote the book with Patte Barham, and it included many of her own memories and diary entries from her childhood in Russia — though some were not convinced she was telling the truth. And that’s not necessarily without reason. In the years directly after the execution of the Romanovs, many came forward claiming to be a surviving daughter of that family (usually Anastasia, the youngest). What many don’t know is that after Grigori Rasputin’s daughters escaped the Russian capital, many came forward claiming to be his heirs, too. This was easy to do since no one is exactly sure how many children he had out of wedlock. Maria Rasputin, however, purported to be the real deal — indeed, she based her entire career on it. When Maria Rasputin died, The New York Times published her obituary , calling her a “dancer and circus performer who contended that she was a daughter of the ‘Mad Monk’ Grigori Rasputin,” leaving many to wonder if maybe her name had been her greatest performance of all.

The state of poverty frequently compels people to engage in desperate actions as a means of acquiring essential items such as food, clothing, and sustenance. In their dire circumstances, individuals may resort to reckless behaviour. During the Edwardian era in North Shields, England, women were frequently apprehended for “Larceny.” This encompassed a wide array of offences under common law, defined as the “unlawful taking of personal property from an individual or business.” Such acts included thefts as varied as pilfering clothes from a washing line, taking food from a table, or stealing personal items like jewellry and money. Most women brought into the North Shields Police Station faced charges of larceny, although repeat offenders were labeled as "Thieves." In some cases, larceny charges also included activities like managing disorderly establishments, public intoxication, or lacking a fixed address. Alice Caush arrested for larceny, 31st October 1903. The collection of mugshots featured here captures women who committed crimes out of desperation or as a result of recurring unlawful behaviour. All bear the marks of weariness caused by the relentless struggle of poverty and ongoing misfortune. Their ages range from teenage years to their late thirties. Reg. No. 52, Susan Joice, Larceny, 1903. These photographs were taken between 1902 and 1905 at the North Shields Police Station and are now preserved in the archives of the Tyne and Wear Archives and Museums. The Shields Daily News for 19 August 1903 reports: “Yesterday at North Shields, Susan Joyce (16), residing at 17 Front Street, Milburn Place, was charged with stealing on the 15th inst, from a gas meter at a house, 18 Front Street, the sum of 6s 5d, the moneys of the Tynemouth Gas Company. Sarah Nicholson, the occupant of the above house stated that she noticed that the lock had been broken off the meter and the money extracted. Ellen Watson, sister of the accused stated that the later went to her house with her apron full of copper. Altogether there was 5s 6d. She afterwards handed the money over to the police. Detective Thornton spoke to arresting the defendant and when charged she admitted taking the money out of the meter. The Bench imposed a fine of 5s and 10s costs”. Annie Anderson arrested for alleged theft of a watch, 25th August 1903. The newspaper report of 1 September featured in the comments suggests that Annie Anderson may have been involved in prostitution. This is made more explicit in a report of a later arrest in the Shields Daily Gazette for 21 July 1904, ‘disorderly house’ being a euphemism for brothel. “At North Shields Annie Anderson (34) was charged with keeping a disorderly house in Liddell Street on July 1st. Sergt. G. Scougal proved the case. Chief Constable Huish said that the prisoner was convicted for a similar offence on March 28th of this year, and committed for one month. Immediately she came out of prison she went back to the room and continued to carry on the house in the same manner as before. The complaints received by the police about it were serious. Defendant, who pleaded not guilty, was committed for three months with hard labour”. Catherine Buck arrested for stealing sheets, 3 February 1905. Catherine Mackenzie arrested for larceny, 15th February 1904. Catherine O'Brien arrested on 11th November 1903. The Shields Daily News for 11 November 1903 reports: “Elizabeth Hall (29), Miller’s Bank and Catherine O’Brien (30), no fixed abode, drunk and disorderly in Howdon Road; the former was committed to prison for one month and the latter fined 5s and costs”. Charlotte Branney arrested for larceny, 5th January 1904. The Shields Daily Gazette for 12 January 1904 reports: “Charlotte Branney (18), who hails from Murton Colliery, was formerly in domestic service with Ed. McHugh, eating-house keeper, New Quay, North Shields. On August 26th she obtained a day’s leave and, after she was gone, a jacket was missed from a stand in the hall. Next day she left altogether and so did a skirt from the bedroom. Charlotte was apprehended at Seaham Harbour and brought back to explain. This she did by pleading guilty to stealing the skirt but, as to the jacket, she said she only borrowed that for the afternoon. Being afraid of detection on her return she threw it over a fence near her mistresses’s house and it was gone the next morning. Chief Contsable Huish said she was “wanted” at Newcastle on another charge and she was now sentences to 14 days in the second division”. Jane Forbes arrested for larceny, 26th January 1905. Jane Thompson alias Gordon arrested for stealing a pair of boots, 13th July 1904. Kate Stobbs arrested for stealing from her landlady, 11th June 1903. Mabel Smith arrested for larceny, 28th September 1903. Mary A. Butts arrested for larceny, 20th December 1904. Mary Scott alias Wilson arrested for stealing clothes, 14th December 1903. Susannah Adamson arrested for stealing a man’s purse, 15th February 1904. The Shields Daily Gazette for 1 March 1904 reports: “Susannah Adamson (25) who resides in Magnesia Bank, accompanied a labourer named Alexander Angus into the Gardeners’ Arms, in Rudyard Street, on Saturday. While there she relieved him of a purse and 25s. Angus did not know of his loss until the woman had left the bar and when he discovered it he immediately followed her, took possession of his purse, opened it and found it contained 1½ d. Detective Scougal arrested in her own house later in the night, and the woman told him that she had never seen either Angus or his money. Before the North Shields magistrates Adamson made a most vigorous defence, protesting that she never stole any of the man’s money. Before this case she had made ten appearances before the magistrates and she was now committed to prison for a month”.