c. 1904 Portrait of the Thomas A. and Margaret Dillon Family. Virginia-born coachman Thomas A. Dillon and his wife, Margaret, a domestic servant and native of Newton, Massachusetts, pose in the parlour of their home at 4 Dewey Street with children Thomas, Margaret, and Mary. A poster on the wall commemorates President Theodore Roosevelt’s visit to the Worcester Agricultural Fair in 1902. In the pantheon of early 20th-century American photography, William Bullard holds a unique position, distinguished not only by his technical prowess but also by his profound dedication to portraying the lives of people of colour. In the two decades before World War I, Bullard made over 200 portraits of people of colour in his home town, capturing them at work, in their gardens, and in their living rooms. 1900 Portrait of James J. and Jennie Bradley Johnson Family. James J. Johnson, of Nipmuc, Narragansett, and African American descent, and Jennie Bradley Johnson, a migrant from Charleston, South Carolina, pose with their daughters Jennie and May. James worked as a coachman and belonged to the King David Masonic Lodge. He died soon after this portrait was taken. Jennie later worked as a laundress. Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1876, William Bullard was the son of a Civil War veteran and a homemaker. His early years were marked by the untimely death of his father, which plunged his family into financial difficulty. Despite these hardships, Bullard nurtured a burgeoning interest in photography, an art form that was still in its relative infancy. As a young man, he apprenticed with local photographers, honing his skills and developing a keen eye for composition and lighting. Bullard's work, however, was not driven solely by a passion for the art of photography. His decision to focus on people of colour was a conscious one, rooted in a deep-seated belief in equality and social justice. In an era where racial prejudices were rampant, Bullard's camera became a tool for counter-narrative, documenting the dignity and resilience of African American and Native American communities. c. 1904 Portrait of Raymond Schuyler and his Children, Ethel, Stephen, Beatrice, and Dorothea. A native of Troy, New York, Raymond Schuyler migrated to Worcester in 1887 to work for the Worcester Wire Works and later worked for the Boston and Maine Railroad. Active in All Saints Episcopal Church, the Masons, and Knights of Pythias, Schuyler was the oldest member of the Worcester Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People when he died in 1956. The Subjects of His Lens Bullard's subjects were predominantly the residents of Worcester's Beaver Brook neighbourhood, an area known for its diverse population. His relationship with these communities was not that of a distant observer; he was a trusted friend and neighbour. This intimate connection allowed him to capture his subjects with an authenticity that is palpable in his images. The trust and mutual respect between Bullard and his subjects are evident in the relaxed and confident expressions that grace his photographs. c. 1906 Portrait of a Mixed-Race Group, Including a Woman With a Guitar. This group may have been entertainers at an Old Home Days celebration, a popular event at the turn of the century held to commemorate the area’s rural past. His subjects ranged from prominent community leaders to everyday workers and children. Each portrait is a testament to the individual's unique story and the collective narrative of their community. Bullard’s approach was inclusive, portraying his subjects with the same dignity and attention to detail that he would afford any sitter. This egalitarian approach was radical for its time and provides a stark contrast to the often demeaning or exploitative depictions of people of colour in contemporary media. The glass negatives that Bullard left behind gathered dust until a few years ago, when Frank Morrill, the steward of the collection, started collaborating with students at Clark University to research the lives of the portrait sitters, using Bullard’s logbook to link faces to names. Over 80 percent of the sitters were identified, making the Bullard collection an unusually cohesive and robust photographic record of a community of colour at the start of the 20th century. 1901 Portrait of Hattie, James Harold, and Clarence Ward. Hattie, Louis, Clarence, and James Harold Ward were the children of Mary Elizabeth Ward Wilson, a migrant from New Bern. James Harold, better known as “Boot,” eventually became a jazz drummer. Given the moniker “Hooks,” Clarence became the proprietor of a restaurant. Hattie worked as an assistant in a dentist’s office. Meeting His Subjects Bullard's method of engaging with his subjects was as important as the images he produced. He often spent considerable time getting to know the individuals and families he photographed, sometimes attending their social gatherings and community events. This immersion within the community allowed him to create portraits that were not only visually striking but also rich in context and meaning. 1900 Portrait of Richard G. Brown. Richard G. Brown was born in Virginia and worked as a labourer in a Worcester broom factory. In 1904, he opened a restaurant, Richard G. Brown & Co. Years of Activity: 1897-1917 Bullard's most prolific period of photographing people of colour spanned two decades, from 1897 to 1917. These years were a time of significant social change and challenge for African American and Native American communities in the United States. The end of the 19th century and the early 20th century saw the entrenchment of Jim Crow laws and the continued displacement of Native American tribes, creating an environment of adversity that Bullard's work subtly but powerfully countered. His images from this period document everyday life, capturing moments of normalcy and joy amid the broader context of social struggle. Bullard's portraits from these years are particularly valuable for their historical and cultural insights, providing a visual record of communities often overlooked or misrepresented in other historical documents. c. 1901 Portrait of Eighteen Girls and Boys at Sunday School. These girls and boys are probably Sunday School students from Bethel AME Church, dressed in black and white for the communion service held once a month, a tradition that continues to this day. c. 1912 Portrait of Louise and Martha Harra. Fondly remembered by many present-day residents of Worcester, “Weezy” and “Marty” were the children of Herbert and Mary E. Price Harra and resided for many years on Mason Street, where Bullard took this photograph. At the time, Bullard's photographs were primarily shared within the local community and through modest exhibitions. The broader art world, steeped in Eurocentric ideals, largely overlooked his work. However, within the communities he photographed, Bullard's images were cherished. They were treasured family heirlooms, often displayed in homes as symbols of pride and identity. c. 1902 Portrait of Betty and Willis Coles. Posing on the porch of their home on Park Avenue, these Virginia migrants arrived in Massachusetts in the 1890s. Willis, who was a day labourer when this portrait was made, later became a pastor in Springfield, Massachusetts. It is only in recent years that Bullard's work has received the recognition it so richly deserves. Contemporary scholars and art historians have lauded his work for its technical excellence and its pioneering role in documenting African American and Native American life with dignity and respect. His portraits are now considered invaluable cultural artefacts, offering a rare glimpse into the lives of early 20th-century communities of colour. c. 1901 Portrait of Susie Idella Morris and Harry Clinton Morris. Susie and Harry Morris were the children of barber Sandy Morris, a migrant from New Orleans, and Susie Arkless Morris, of Narragansett descent. They were the great-great-grandchildren of Sampson Hazard, a Revolutionary War veteran. c. 1902 Portrait of Ralph Mendis. Ralph Mendis was born in 1897 and is seen here at about age five. His mother, Frances, was part of the New Bern, North Carolina, migration to Worcester. His father was one of a handful of Jamaican immigrants who resided in the city. c. 1902 Portrait of Zenobia Clark. Claude and Zenobia Clark were the children of barber Joseph C. Clark, a migrant from South Carolina, and Laurie Harden Clark, born in Georgia. c. 1901 Portrait of Isaac (Ike) Perkins Wearing a Top Hat. Ike Perkins was a member of the Improved Benevolent Order of Elks of the World and posed for Bullard informal wear, worn by Elks for special ceremonies. Ike died in 1920 during a flu pandemic. c. 1900 Portrait of David T. Oswell with His Viola. David Oswell, born in Boston, emigrated from St. John’s, New Brunswick, Canada, to Worcester in 1877. Oswell taught violin and guitar to prominent white families, writing musical scores performed throughout the city. c. 1902 Portrait of Edward Perkins in His Garden. Camden migrant Edward Perkins poses in his lush garden of collard greens in the Beaver Brook neighbourhood, demonstrating the literal transplantation of Southern culture to the North. 1907 P ortrait of Members of the Worcester Veterans Firemen’s Association. This photograph was likely taken at a firemen’s muster in Worcester’s Elm Park. Musters usually lasted two days, attracting the attendance of thousands and consisting of skill based competitions between local and visiting fire companies.

Violet Jessop, renowned as an ocean liner stewardess and nurse, is famously remembered for surviving the catastrophic sinkings of both the RMS Titanic in 1912 and its sister ship, the HMHS Britannic, in 1916. Remarkably, she had also been aboard the RMS Olympic when it collided with a British warship in 1911. Born on October 1, 1887, near Bahía Blanca, Argentina, Jessop was the eldest daughter of Irish immigrants, William and Katherine Jessop. She grew up alongside eight siblings, with six surviving infancy. Despite facing adversity, including a presumed battle with tuberculosis during her childhood, Jessop's resilience prevailed against doctors' dire predictions. At 16, tragedy struck with the death of her father due to surgery complications. Subsequently, the family relocated to England, where Jessop attended a convent school. She juggled her education with caring for her youngest sister while her mother pursued work as a stewardess at sea. When her mother fell ill, Jessop left school to follow in her footsteps, securing a stewardess position at the age of 21 with the Royal Mail Line aboard the Orinoco in 1908. Olympic In 1910, Jessop began her tenure as a stewardess aboard the White Star vessel, RMS Olympic, which held the distinction of being the largest civilian liner of its era. On September 20, 1911, Jessop was present when the Olympic departed from Southampton and encountered a collision with the British warship, HMS Hawke. Fortunately, there were no casualties, and despite sustaining damage, the ship managed to return to port without incident. Interestingly, Jessop opted not to include details of this collision in her memoirs. Titanic Jessop embarked on the RMS Titanic as a stewardess on April 10, 1912, at the age of 25. Just four days later, on April 14, the ship struck an iceberg in the North Atlantic Ocean. Within two hours of the collision, the Titanic had sunk. In her memoirs, Jessop recounted being summoned to the deck to serve as an example for non-English speakers who couldn't understand the instructions being given. She observed as the crew loaded the lifeboats and was eventually directed to board lifeboat 16. As the lifeboat descended, a Titanic officer entrusted her with caring for a baby. "I was ordered up on deck. Calmly, passengers strolled about. I stood at the bulkhead with the other stewardesses, watching the women cling to their husbands before being put into the boats with their children. Some time after, a ship's officer ordered us into the boat (16) first to show some women it was safe. As the boat was being lowered the officer called: 'Here, Miss Jessop. Look after this baby.' And a bundle was dropped on to my lap." The next morning, Jessop and the rest of the survivors were rescued by the RMS Carpathia . According to Jessop, while on board the Carpathia , a woman, presumably the baby's mother, grabbed the baby she was holding and ran off with it without saying a word. "I was still clutching the baby against my hard cork lifebelt I was wearing when a woman leaped at me and grabbed the baby, and rushed off with it, it appeared that she put it down on the deck of the Titanic while she went off to fetch something, and when she came back the baby had gone. I was too frozen and numb to think it strange that this woman had not stopped to say 'thank you'. Britannic During the First World War, Jessop served as a stewardess for the British Red Cross. On the morning of 21 November 1916, she was on board the HMHS Britannic, a White Star liner that had been converted into a hospital ship, when it sank in the Aegean Sea due to an unexplained explosion. The Britannic sank within 57 minutes, killing 30 people. British authorities hypothesized that the ship was either struck by a torpedo or hit a mine planted by German forces. Conspiracy theories have circulated that suggest the British were responsible for sinking their own ship. Scientists have been unable to reach definitive conclusions as to the true cause. While the Britannic was sinking, Jessop and other passengers were nearly killed by the boat's propellers that were sucking lifeboats under the stern. Jessop had to jump out of her lifeboat and received a traumatic head injury, but survived despite her injuries. "I leapt into the water but was sucked under the ship's keel which struck my head. I escaped, but years later when I went to my doctor because of a lot of headaches, he discovered I had once sustained a fracture of the skull!" In her memoirs, she described the scene she witnessed as the Britannic went under: "The white pride of the ocean's medical world... dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths." Following the war, Jessop remained employed with the White Star Line, later transitioning to positions with the Red Star Line and eventually returning to the Royal Mail Line. While serving with the Red Star Line, Jessop embarked on two voyages around the world aboard the company's flagship, the Belgenland. In her late thirties, Jessop entered into a brief marriage before retiring to Great Ashfield, Suffolk, in 1950. Years after retiring, Jessop recounted an intriguing tale of receiving a mysterious telephone call one stormy night. A woman on the line inquired if Jessop had rescued a baby on the fateful night of the Titanic's sinking. "Yes," Jessop affirmed. The voice then revealed, "I was that baby," before laughing and abruptly ending the call. Her friend and biographer, John Maxtone-Graham, speculated that it might have been children from the village playing a prank. Jessop, however, insisted, "No, John, I had never shared that story with anyone before telling you now." Historical records indicate that the sole baby aboard lifeboat 16 was Assad Thomas, entrusted to Edwina Troutt and later reunited with his mother aboard the Carpathia. Affectionately nicknamed "Miss Unsinkable," Jessop passed away from congestive heart failure in 1971 at the age of 83.

During World War II, the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands spurred the rise of many resistance groups, but few stories are as remarkable as those of Truus Oversteegen, Freddie Oversteegen, and Hannie Schaft. These young women displayed extraordinary courage and resilience, engaging in direct action against the Nazis. Their stories are not only a testament to their bravery but also an inspiration for future generations. Family Background and Early Life Truus Oversteegen was born on August 29, 1923, and her sister Freddie Oversteegen followed on September 6, 1925. Raised in a leftist, working-class family in the industrial town of Haarlem, their mother was a staunch communist and feminist who instilled in them a strong sense of social justice. The family also harboured refugees and political dissidents, laying the groundwork for the sisters’ future resistance activities. Hannie Schaft, born Jannetje Johanna Schaft on September 16, 1920, grew up in Haarlem as well. Unlike the Oversteegens, her family was more affluent and conservative. Hannie was studying law at the University of Amsterdam when the war interrupted her education. The Call to Resistance The Oversteegen sisters were just 14 and 16 years old when they began their resistance work. Initially, they distributed anti-Nazi leaflets and helped Jewish children find safe houses. As the war progressed, their involvement deepened. Truus and Freddie joined the Council of Resistance (Raad van Verzet) in 1941, engaging in more dangerous missions such as sabotage and armed attacks. Hannie Schaft, known later as “The Girl with the Red Hair,” joined the resistance after witnessing the injustices of the Nazi regime firsthand. By 1943, she had become an integral part of the group, working alongside the Oversteegen sisters. Schaft did not, however, accept every assignment. When asked to kidnap the children of a Nazi official she refused. If the plan had failed, the children would have to be killed, and Schaft felt that was too similar to the Nazis' acts of terror. When seen at the location of a particular assassination, Schaft was identified as "the girl with the red hair". Her involvement led "the girl with the red hair" to be placed on the Nazis' most-wanted list. Luring Nazis into the Forest One of the most harrowing tactics used by the trio was seducing German soldiers and Dutch collaborators to isolated areas where they could be ambushed and killed. This tactic was not only dangerous but required immense psychological strength. Freddie Oversteegen recounted one such mission: “We had to go to a meeting place, and we had to dance with those men, but we could not show any emotions, because those men were our enemies. I was just 16 when I did this. One time, I met a man who wanted to go for a walk in the woods. So, we did, and when we were deep enough into the woods, he asked me if I would ‘go with him’. That was when I had to lure him to the spot where my comrades were waiting. We went there, and he was shot. I had to see him die.” These missions required them to walk a fine line between feigned interest and the constant risk of being discovered. Resistance Activities and Sabotage Truus, Freddie, and Hannie were not only skilled at luring enemies but also actively engaged in a range of daring sabotage missions that significantly impacted the German occupation in the Netherlands. Their operations extended beyond mere deception, involving the strategic destruction of crucial infrastructure such as railway lines and bridges, which disrupted German supply lines and communication networks. The trio's audacious acts included derailing trains carrying supplies for the enemy and launching direct assaults on Nazi officials, sending a powerful message of resistance and defiance. Among the three, Hannie Schaft stood out for her exceptional bravery and unwavering commitment to the Dutch resistance cause. Her reputation as a fearless operative grew as she undertook increasingly dangerous missions, culminating in the dramatic assassination of Willem Ragut, a prominent member of the Dutch Nazi Party. This bold act not only struck a blow to the occupiers but also inspired others to join the fight against oppression. A Notable Operation In one notable operation, Truus and Hannie were tasked with eliminating a high-ranking Gestapo officer. As Truus later described: “Hannie and I had to wait in the woods, but when the car approached, it was clear there were more soldiers than we had expected. We had to adjust our plan quickly, and in the end, we managed to carry out the attack, but it was a very close call.” Capture and Aftermath Truus and Freddie survived the war, continuing to contribute to Dutch society through various roles. However, the war’s end was not kind to Hannie Schaft. She was captured by the Nazis in March 1945 and executed on April 17, 1945, just weeks before the liberation of the Netherlands. Hannie’s Final Moments Hannie’s courage was evident even in her final moments. As she faced her executioners, she reportedly said: “I shoot better than you,” after the first bullet only wounded her. She was then fatally shot again. Legacy and Recognition After the war, Truus and Freddie Oversteegen were honoured for their bravery. Truus received the Mobilisation War Cross and became a public speaker, advocating for the recognition of female resistance fighters. Freddie also shared her experiences in interviews, ensuring that the stories of their resistance were not forgotten. Hannie Schaft became a symbol of resistance, her story immortalised in books, films, and memorials. Her legacy is particularly remembered every year on National Remembrance Day in the Netherlands. A Lasting Impact The bravery of these three women has left an indelible mark on history. Their willingness to face unimaginable risks for the sake of freedom and justice continues to inspire. Sources 1. “Seducing and Killing Nazis: Hannie, Truus, and Freddie: Dutch Resistance Heroines of World War II”  by Sophie Poldermans 2. “The Girl with the Red Hair”  by Theun de Vries 3. “Hannie Schaft: Het Meisje Met Het Rode Haar”  by Hanneke Verbeek 4. “Inside the Dutch Resistance: Memoirs of an American Agent”  by Henry G. Schogt

Every so often a film comes along that changes the way you look at cinema and shocks the very foundations of the film industry. 'Who Killed Captain Alex' is just one of those films. Produced by Wakaliwood studios it was filmed in Wakaliga, a slum in Uganda's capital of Kampala by Its founder and director Nabwana I.G.G., Uganda's Quentin Tarantino. Nabwana's formative years were spent amidst the tumultuous era of Idi Amin's rule in the 1970s Uganda. While the nation grappled with violence and ethnic strife, the land owned by Nabwana's grandfather provided a haven of relative tranquility. His passion for filmmaking ignited from cherished memories of watching reruns of shows like Hawaii Five-O and Logan's Run, coupled with a deep-seated admiration for Hollywood action flicks and martial arts masterpieces from his youth. Despite never setting foot in a cinema, Nabwana eagerly absorbed accounts of newly released films described by his brothers and friends. It wasn't until 2005, following a stint in a computer course on video editing and a study of filmmaking tutorials, that Nabwana established Ramon Film Productions (later becoming Wakaliwood), named after his grandmothers Rachael and Monica. The studio makes pr ops and jibs out of DIY parts, which commentators have compared to the early days of Hollywood. Among the studio's props is a full sized helicopter frame that has become a staple in all Wakaliwood films. Nabwana shoots and edits his films using old computers that he assembles. Squibs and theatrical blood, used to simulate bloody gunshots, are made from condoms filled with red food colouring an d tied to fishing lines before being taped to the actors' chests. Nabwana had previously used cow blood, but was forced to discontinue its use after one of his actors developed brucellosis . Upon a film's completion, the actors sell DVD copies door-to-door in a one-week time window to ensure they make money before the film is bootlegged Who Killed Captain Alex? In 2010 Wakaliwood released 'Who Killed Captain Alex' which quickly gained viral notoriety for being a no-budget action film , produced on a reported budget of under $200 (the producer says the budget was actually $85). The original version of t he film was lost due to power outages and "strained conditions" according to Nabwana, while the surviving version of Who Killed Captain Alex? released online includes commentary from the first English-speaking "Video Joker" that includes running gags about the characters (see above). I'm going to give an outline of the plot now, so if you want to watch it and don't want spoilers, stop reading here! Captain Alex, one of the most decorated officers in the Uganda People's Defence Force, is sent out to capture the crime boss Richard and his Tiger Mafia, a criminal organisation that controls the drug trade of the city of Kampala. Alex sets up camp in the village of Wakaliga. After doing so, his soldiers go to a bar where a fight ensues between them and the villagers. Alex breaks it up and takes them out of the bar. Alex and his soldiers locate the Tiger Mafia during a drug deal and infiltrate it. In the following fight, Richard's brother is captured. Richard berates his men, shoots his wife Ritah in his fit of rage, and then swears revenge against Alex. He orders a spy to seduce Alex in his tent and sends the mafia to capture him later that night. However, Alex is killed by an unknown source, leaving the mafia and his soldiers in disarray. Captain Alex's brother, a Ugandan shaolin monk named Bruce U arrives at Kampala the next morning in search of the murderer and finds a Tiger Mafia card in Alex's tent. Elsewhere, the mafia tells Richard that Alex is dead; Richard becomes irate because he wanted Alex brought to him. Bruce goes to a shaolin temple where he fights the other martial artist until the master appears. Bruce asks the master for help on his quest for vengeance, but the latter declines. Bruce goes to the forest to train for his quest on his own. After sleeping in a tree, he discovers Ritah, who has amnesia after being shot by her husband. Bruce, unaware that she was part of the Tiger Mafia, comes to her aid. After training in a nearby lake, he discovers that Ritah was a member of the mafia due to a tattoo with the mafia's initials. Ritah regains her memory and agrees to take Bruce to the Tiger Mafia base. The UPDF hires a new military leader who formulates a plan to attack the mafia's base. However, his plan is overheard by Richard through the phone of a turncoat police officer. Richard gathers the mafia at the base to prepare and sends one of his men to steal an attack helicopter to bomb Kampala to serve as a distraction for the government. Bruce invades the mafia's base, but is captured and brought to Richard, who orders three of his men to fight him with combat skills. Bruce holds his own for some time but is eventually overwhelmed. The military bombs the base with a helicopter, forcing the mafia into a forest where they fight the UPDF. After the chaotic fighting, the entire mafia is dead and only Richard remains. He strips the gun off one of his deceased men, kills a number of soldiers, and takes down the military helicopter but is eventually shot and captured. The Ugandan government places Kampala under martial law, and the film abruptly ends as the Video Joker thanks the audience for watching. More recent Wakaliwood productions In March 2015, Wakaliwood initiated a Kickstarter campaign with a goal of raising US$160 for their movie Tebaatusasula: Ebola. Remarkably, the studio garnered over US$13,000 from 374 supporters by April 1st. Tebaatusasula: Ebola acts as both a direct sequel to Who Killed Captain Alex? and a reinterpretation of the 2010 film Tebaatusasula, which was unfortunately lost due to a significant power surge damaging the hard drive containing the film. Later that year, in September, the Wakaliwood team participated in the Nyege Nyege Festival in Jinja, where they spent two days filming Attack on Nyege Nyege, getting festival attendees as extras.

Dr. Young's Ideal Rectal Dilators, marketed in the United States from the late 19th century through at least the 1940s, were part of the growing industry of patent and proprietary medicines and devices during that era. These dilators were sold in sets of four, resembling torpedoes, made of hard rubber initially, later transitioning to plastic. Ranging from 1⁄2 to 1 inch in diameter and 3 to 4 inches in length, they were detailed in a retrospective piece in The American Journal of Gastroenterology, which noted their similarity to contemporary rectal dilators. In an editorial from 1893 in Medical News, it was observed that "Dr. Young," who also served as the editor of another journal, advocated for rectal dilation as a treatment for insanity. He asserted that "three-fourths of all the howling maniacs of the world" could be cured "in a few weeks' time" through orificial methods. Medical News posed the question, Why, then, in the name of pity and kindness, do these men not apply the dilators each to himself or to each other? We very much fear all this imbecility may rest upon a semi-pathologic basis, and that Krafft-Ebing may have a new chapter to write concerning sodomic perversion in his work upon sexual psychopathy The product claimed it corrected constipation, promoted more refreshing sleep, and could relieve foul breath, bad taste in the mouth, sallow skin, acne, anaemia, lassitude, mental hebetude, insomnia, anorexia, headaches, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, flatulence, indigestion, nervousness, irritability, cold extremities, and numerous other ailments. The instructions warned, “Do not neglect to use your Dilators ... It is advisable to use [them] occasionally as a precautionary measure. You need have no fear of using them too much.” A 1905 advertisement by F. E. Young and Co. of Chicago promised that "The best results may be obtained by the use of Young's self-retaining rectal dilators", the use of which "accomplishes for the invalid just what nature does daily for the healthy individual". Doctors were advised that "If you will prescribe a set of these dilators in some of your obstinate cases of Chronic Constipation you will find them necessary in every case of this kind". The price of a set "to the profession" was $2.50 (equivalent to $80 in 2024). Young admitted that some patients panicked at the sight of the devices In 1940, the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York confiscated a shipment of these devices for being misbranded. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's subsequent Drugs and Devices Court Case Notice of Judgment (entitled "U.S. v. 67 Sets of Dr. Young's Rectal Dilators and 83 Packages of Dr. Young's Piloment"), the product's labelling claimed it could address constipation, improve sleep quality, and alleviate a wide array of issues including bad breath, sallow skin, acne, anemia, fatigue, mental dullness, insomnia, lack of appetite, headaches, diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, flatulence, indigestion, nervousness, irritability, cold extremities, and many other ailments. The accompanying instructions cautioned users not to neglect the use of the dilators and even suggested their occasional use as a preventive measure, reassuring that there was no risk of overuse. The devices were held to be "dangerous to health when used with the frequency and duration prescribed, recommended or suggested in the labeling", and the shipment was ordered to be destroyed.

On the afternoon of Thursday 15 July 1976, 55 year old school bus driver Frank Edward Ray collected 26 children from Dairyland Elementary School in the farming town of Chowchilla. The pupils had spent the day at the Chowchilla Fairgrounds swimming pool as part of a summer excursion organised by the school. For most of the children it had been an ordinary outing, the kind they looked forward to every year, and Ray was the familiar figure who ensured they reached home safely. As the bus made its way along a quiet rural road bordered by orchards and grazing land, Ray noticed a white van parked across the road ahead. He slowed, thinking the driver might move, but the van remained fixed in place. As soon as he stopped the bus, three men stepped out, each wearing nylon stockings pulled tightly over their faces. Before any of the children could understand what was happening, one of the men climbed the stairs of the bus and pointed a gun at Ray. Another ordered the children to stay silent. A third took Ray’s place at the steering wheel and began to drive. Ray attempted to reassure the frightened children, quietly saying, Stay close now. We will be all right. July 16, 1976: Police and parents inspect the Dairyland Union school bus after it was found near Chowchilla with all 26 students and driver missing. The man facing the camera is Denver Williams, whose daughter Lisa, 12, was among the missing. The hijacking was quick. The bus was forced off its usual route and taken along isolated back roads where no one was likely to witness what was unfolding. Years later, several local farm workers reported that they had seen the strange procession of the yellow bus followed by a van, but at the time nothing seemed unusual enough to prompt an alert. Inside the Stifling Heat of the Vans The three abductors were young men from well known families in the Bay Area. They were twenty four year old Frederick Newhall Woods and his associates James and Richard Schoenfeld. Although their families were wealthy, all three men had accumulated considerable debt. They had spent months planning a crime they believed would solve their financial problems. They had studied bus schedules, scouted rural locations and purchased supplies under false names. The inside of this van was used as the children's prison. Hostages had to use a box with a hole as a toilet. The men forced Ray and the children into two vans that had been carefully modified for the kidnapping. The windows were painted black, the interiors were lined with crude soundproofing and there were no seats. The children were packed onto the floor where the heat rose quickly. It was a Central Valley summer, with temperatures well above thirty degrees, and the enclosed vans became difficult to breathe in. Several children fainted. Others wept quietly, too afraid to speak. The journey that should have lasted a few hours stretched into almost twelve as the abductors avoided main roads and potential police checkpoints. Ray continued to reassure the children whenever he could. One pupil later remembered hearing him say through the van wall, Keep talking to each other. Keep your minds awake. His calmness in those hours became a crucial anchor for the terrified group. A Buried Trruck in a Livermore Quarry The vans finally reached their destination in the early hours of 16 July. It was a remote section of the California Rock and Gravel Quarry in Livermore, a site owned by Woods’ father. Hidden among mounds of earth was a large truck trailer that the kidnappers had transformed into an underground chamber. Weeks earlier they had excavated a deep pit using heavy equipment from the quarry, lowered the trailer into it and covered the top with sheet metal and layers of earth to disguise the structure. July 17, 1976: Alameda County Sheriff Tom Houchins briefs the news media at the Livermore quarry where the Chowchilla children were buried. They escaped through the shaft lower right in this photo The kidnappers forced the children and Ray down a ladder into the buried trailer. The interior had been fitted with mattresses, makeshift ventilation pipes, limited food, water and a crude toilet. It was clear that the abductors believed they would hold their captives for an extended period while they negotiated a ransom. They meticulously recorded the name and age of every child on individual Jack in the Box hamburger wrappers, a detail that later became one of the most haunting elements of the case. Inside the trailer, the conditions deteriorated quickly. The roof began to sag under the weight of the earth above. Dirt fell through gaps in the metal sheeting and several of the children believed the ceiling would collapse on top of them. The air was thick and difficult to breathe. There was very little food, and the milk provided spoiled in the oppressive heat. Victims being escorted by sheriff's deputies after their escape Fear, Darkness and the Beginning of a Plan As the hours passed, the fear intensified. Many of the children were too frightened even to use the makeshift toilet. Some cried through the night. Ray, who was exhausted and drenched in sweat, continued to comfort them. One eleven year old recalled Ray saying, If there is a way out, we will find it. He never stopped thinking of solutions. Workers unearth the buried kidnap van where 27 people were held hostage. The weight of dirt crushed the top What the abductors did not know was that their victims were already looking for a way to escape. Among the children was fourteen year old Michael Marshall, tall, strong and resolute. He had listened to Ray’s instructions throughout the ordeal and had begun to study the ceiling and the position of the hatch where they had been lowered. If they could reach it, they might be able to force it open. How Fourteen Year Old Michael Marshall Helped Them Escape Ray gathered the older children, including Michael, and devised a plan to stack beds and mattresses to form a platform beneath the roof. It was the only way to reach the hatch. The group worked in near silence, lifting heavy mattresses despite the cramped space. As the structure grew taller, Ray encouraged Michael to climb onto the top and test whether the hatch could be shifted. The hatch was covered by metal sheeting weighed down by two one hundred pound industrial batteries. Michael pushed at the metal plate, but at first it did not budge. Ray urged him not to give up. Using a length of wooden slat that had broken off from the interior structure, Michael wedged it into a narrow gap he had found. With considerable force he began to pry the sheeting upward. Dirt poured down into the trailer and several children screamed, convinced the ceiling was collapsing. Ray kept his voice steady, telling them to breathe and stay together. Mike Marshall, who was 14 when he helped save his fellow hostages Michael continued to push until he managed to dislodge the metal plate. The batteries slid aside and the gap widened enough for him to scrape away the packed earth above. It took nearly an hour to create an opening large enough to climb through. Once Michael pulled himself out, Ray handed the younger children up one by one. Approximately sixteen hours after they had been imprisoned underground, Ray and all twenty six children emerged into the dawn light. Reaching Safety The group was dehydrated, filthy and exhausted. They had no sense of where they were, although Ray suspected they were in a quarry. They began to walk until they reached the guard shack located near the entrance. The guard, seeing a procession of dirt streaked children and a weary bus driver approaching, was momentarily unsure if he was dreaming. When he realised what had happened, he radioed for help. Alameda County sheriffs arrived quickly. The children were taken to Santa Rita Jail because it was the closest facility with medical staff available at that hour. Doctors and emergency personnel treated them for dehydration, heat exhaustion and cuts. Several still had dirt in their hair and clothing from their emergence from the underground trailer. The sheriffs collected statements and listened carefully as the children described the abductors. The abductors entering the courthouse for a pre-trial hearing Back in Chowchilla, parents had spent the night searching fields, barns and irrigation canals, terrified that their children had drowned or had been lost in the orchards. When news arrived that the children and their driver were alive, the town erupted into tears, relief and disbelief. Hundreds of townspeople flooded the streets, embracing each other as though welcoming the children home was a collective act. The Ransom That Was Never Delivered The abductors had expected to telephone in a request for a five million pound ransom. However, the kidnappers were unable to place the call because the Chowchilla police switchboard had been overwhelmed by frantic parents and national news organisations. When the men eventually awoke from a sleep, they turned on the news and discovered that their captives had freed themselves. Their plan had collapsed before they could even issue their demand. The Investigation and Capture of the Kidnappers The FBI quickly turned its attention to the Woods family quarry after discovering that one of the vans used in the abduction had been purchased by Woods. When investigators searched the Woods family estate, they uncovered detailed notes, maps, receipts for the purchase of the trailer and vans, draft ransom letters, fake identification papers and the Jack in the Box wrappers listing each child’s name and age. It was an overwhelming volume of evidence. From left, brothers James and Richard Schoenfeld and Fred Woods are taken to prison in 1978. The search also revealed plans for a ransom drop that Woods and the Schoenfelds had designed with a surprising level of detail. They intended to have the money dropped from an aircraft into the Santa Cruz Mountains and retrieve it under cover of darkness. They had even purchased a Cadillac and painted it with flat black spray paint to serve as a getaway vehicle. Arrest warrants were issued immediately. Richard Schoenfeld surrendered after eight days. James Schoenfeld was found in Menlo Park two weeks later. Woods fled to Canada but was arrested by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police soon afterwards. Trial, Conviction and the Long Legal Aftermath All three men pleaded guilty to kidnapping for ransom and robbery. They refused to plead guilty to the charge of causing bodily harm because that charge carried a mandatory sentence of life in prison without the possibility of parole. A trial on the bodily harm count followed. The jury found them guilty, and the judge imposed the mandatory sentence. Years later, an appellate court overturned the bodily harm conviction, ruling that the cuts and bruises suffered by the children did not meet the legal definition of serious physical injury. The three men were resentenced to life with the possibility of parole. Aug. 22, 1976: Bus driver Ed Ray is surrounded by some of the children he is credited with rescuing as Chowchilla celebrates “Ed Ray and Children Day,” with parade, speeches and barbecue. Richard Schoenfeld was released in 2012. James followed in 2015. Woods, who repeatedly minimised his actions and amassed multiple disciplinary violations while in prison, had his parole denied many times. It emerged that he had been secretly running businesses from inside prison and retained access to a significant family trust. After prolonged legal argument and intervention by state officials, Woods was finally granted parole in 2022. Frederick Woods, James Schoenfeld and Richard Schoenfeld The Legacy of Ed Ray Ed Ray was celebrated as a hero, although he never considered himself one. When asked about the ordeal, he simply said, I had children in my care. It was my duty to protect them. His modesty endeared him even more to the families of Chowchilla. The children he saved remained grateful for the rest of their lives, many visiting him decades later with their own families to thank him. Ray died on 17 May 2012, and in his honour the town renamed its Sports and Leisure Park as Edward Ray Park. Every year on his birthday, 26 February, Chowchilla observes Edward Ray Day. The children after the rescue The Lifelong Impact on the Children Although the escape ended the physical danger, the psychological wounds endured for decades. Studies of the children revealed significant trauma. Many suffered nightmares about burial and abduction. Others developed severe phobias, including fear of cars, fear of darkness, fear of the wind or even fear of household appliances. Several struggled with depression, substance use or difficulties in adulthood. A few encountered the criminal justice system after exhibiting controlling or violent behaviour, shaped by unresolved trauma from their buried captivity. One survivor described the experience years later as something that never leaves you. You grow older, but the feeling of being buried alive stays somewhere in your mind. Fred Woods, Richard Schoenfeld and James Schoenfeld An Unusual Motive Among the most unexpected revelations to emerge during the investigation was the curious detail that the kidnappers had planned to use part of the ransom money to restore the Rengstorff House, a Victorian landmark in Mountain View. Woods had been fascinated by the house since childhood. For investigators, the idea that a crime of this magnitude had been designed partly to support a restoration project added another strange layer to an already extraordinary case. Sources New York Times “26 Children Seized in California Escape From Burying Van”  (July 17, 1976) https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/17/archives/26-children-seized-in-california-escape-from-burying-van-van-is.html “Bus Driver Describes Escape From Buried Van”  (July 18, 1976) https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/18/archives/bus-driver-describes-escape-from-buried-van.html Los Angeles Times Archives “Chowchilla Abduction Children Tell of Ordeal Underground”  (July 1976 archive) https://latimes.newspapers.com/image/381920503/ (Direct archive image from the LA Times via Newspapers.com ) Washington Post “How 26 Kidnapped Children Dug Themselves Out”  (July 1976) https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1976/07/17/how-26-kidnapped-children-dug-themselves-out/148039d4 a778 47f2 8a1a 1643df5688da/ UPI Archive “Chowchilla Kidnappers Had Asked for $5 Million Ransom” https://www.upi.com/Archives/1976/07/19/Chowchilla kidnappers had asked for 5 million ransom/6031511512000/ California Court of Appeal – People v. Woods Official appellate ruling regarding the Chowchilla kidnappers. https://law.justia.com/cases/california/court-of-appeal/3d/108/19.html California Court of Appeal – People v. Schoenfeld (Parole release appeal documents) https://law.justia.com/cases/california/court-of-appeal/2012/c070550.html California Governor’s Office Gov. Gavin Newsom denies parole for Frederick Woods (2022 official press release) https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/03/25/governor-newsom-denies-parole-for-frederick-woods/ BBC News “How 26 children escaped being buried alive by kidnappers” https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine 35406374 CBS News – 48 Hours “Remembering Chowchilla”  (Survivor interviews, aired 2016) https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-kidnapping-of-26-california-children-and-their-bus-driver/ CNN “The kidnapped children who climbed out of a grave” https://edition.cnn.com/2016/07/15/us/chowchilla kidnapping survivors/index.html ABC30 (Fresno) Interview with survivor Jennifer Brown Hyde (2022) https://abc30.com/chowchilla kidnapping survivor jennifer brown hyde parole hearing/11679635/ People Magazine Survivors reflect on trauma 45 years later https://people.com/crime/chowchilla survivors on trauma kidnapping buried alive 1976/ Oxygen Documentary: “The Chowchilla Kidnapping” (2023) Official programme page https://www.oxygen.com/chowchilla

Harvey Milk, an iconic figure in the fight for LGBTQ+ rights, was a trailblazing politician whose life and work continue to inspire activists around the world. His journey from a small-town boy to one of the first openly gay elected officials in the United States is a story of perseverance, advocacy, and tragic loss. Early Life and Background Harvey Bernard Milk was born on May 22, 1930, in Woodmere, New York, to Lithuanian Jewish parents. Growing up in a modest, middle-class family, Milk showed early signs of leadership and charisma. After graduating from high school, he attended the New York State College for Teachers (now known as SUNY Albany), where he earned a degree in mathematics in 1951. Following college, he served in the United States Navy during the Korean War. The Road to Politics Milk's path to political activism was not straightforward. Initially, he led a relatively conventional life, working as a teacher and later in finance. However, the cultural upheavals of the 1960s and early 1970s, particularly the burgeoning gay rights movement, deeply influenced him. In 1972, Milk moved to San Francisco, a city with a vibrant and growing gay community. San Francisco in the 1970s was both a haven and a battleground for the LGBTQ+ community. The Castro District became the epicentre of gay life, and Milk quickly became a prominent figure in the neighbourhood. He opened a camera shop, Castro Camera, which soon turned into a community hub and an unofficial campaign headquarters for his political endeavours. Political Challenges and Achievements Harvey Milk faced significant challenges in his political career, including pervasive homophobia and political opposition. His first two attempts to win public office—in 1973 for the San Francisco Board of Supervisors and in 1975 for the California State Assembly—were unsuccessful. However, these losses did not deter him. Instead, they fuelled his determination to fight for greater representation and rights for the LGBTQ+ community. In 1977, Milk's perseverance paid off when he was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors, in an historic election that also saw the first Chinese American and the first African American woman elected to the city’s Board of Supervisors, Milk became one of the country’s first openly gay elected official s in the United States. His victory was a milestone, not just for the LGBTQ+ community but for civil rights movements across the nation. During his tenure, Milk championed several key issues: Anti-Discrimination Ordinances : He spearheaded the passage of a landmark gay rights ordinance, which protected individuals from discrimination based on sexual orientation in housing, employment, and public accommodations. Coalition Building : Milk built alliances with various marginalised communities, understanding that unity was crucial for broader social change. Grassroots Mobilization : He was a master of grassroots organising, using his charisma and communication skills to rally support and inspire action. Protests and Activism Milk's activism extended beyond the political office. He was deeply involved in several high-profile protests and demonstrations, advocating for LGBTQ+ rights and broader social justice issues. Notable protests included: The Briggs Initiative (Proposition 6) : In 1978, Milk played a pivotal role in defeating this proposed law that sought to ban gays and lesbians from working in California's public schools. His impassioned speeches and strategic campaigning helped galvanize a broad coalition against the initiative, ensuring its defeat. Gay Freedom Day Parade : Milk was a regular and vocal participant in San Francisco's Gay Freedom Day Parade, using the platform to promote visibility and solidarity within the LGBTQ+ community. Assassination and Its Aftermath On November 27, 1978, the former Supervisor Dan White crept into City Hall through a basement window, armed with a .38 revolver. White had resigned his post just months earlier, and had unsuccessfully asked that he be reinstated. Angered that his hope of returning to the Board was denied, he confronted and killed Mayor Moscone, then strode across the building to Milk’s office, where he murdered his former colleague with five shots. White was quickly apprehended, and that night, tens of thousands of Milk supporters marched to City Hall for a peaceful candlelight vigil. At the subsequent trial, the defense argued that White was operating under severe mental distress due to the loss of his job, citing his junk-food diet as evidence of diminished morale. White's motives were rooted in a combination of personal vendettas and a broader animus towards Milk's political and social views. The trial of Dan White and its outcome sparked outrage across the country. White was convicted of voluntary manslaughter rather than first-degree murder, receiving a sentence of only seven years and eight months. The lenient verdict, influenced by the controversial "Twinkie defence" (arguing that White's diminished capacity was due to depression and his consumption of junk food), led to the White Night riots, a massive protest in San Francisco. Legacy Harvey Milk's legacy endures through his contributions to the fight for equality and justice. He has been posthumously honoured in numerous ways: Harvey Milk Day : In California, May 22 is designated as Harvey Milk Day, a time to remember and celebrate his contributions. The Harvey Milk Foundation : Founded by his nephew Stuart Milk, this organization continues to promote his vision of equality and civil rights globally. Memorials and Tributes : Streets, schools, and public institutions bear his name, and his story has been immortalised in films, books, and plays. Harvey Milk's life was a testament to the power of authenticity and the importance of standing up for one's beliefs. His courage in the face of adversity continues to inspire new generations of activists to fight for a more just and inclusive world.

In the glitzy realm of Old Hollywood, where stars shone bright on the silver screen, there existed a shadowy figure who operated behind the scenes, shaping narratives and burying scandals beneath layers of secrecy. His name was Eddie Mannix, a man whose very existence blurred the lines between myth and reality. Here, we delve into the murky depths of Mannix's world, uncovering the alleged crimes he orchestrated and the enigmatic persona he cultivated. Eddie Mannix emerged as a pivotal figure in the golden age of Hollywood, wielding influence that extended far beyond the studio lots. Born in 1891, Mannix's early career in the film industry saw him ascend the ranks, eventually landing a position at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), one of the most powerful studios of its time. As the head of MGM's general manager's office, Mannix became known as the studio's "fixer," a title that masked his role as a manipulator of truth and master of deception. Mannix's primary function was to protect the image of MGM's stars, shielding them from scandal and controversy that could tarnish their carefully crafted personas. From extramarital affairs to substance abuse, Mannix employed an arsenal of tactics to keep unsavoury details out of the public eye. In the words of biographer E.J. Fleming, Mannix was "the supreme orchestrator of cover-ups, the smooth operator who could make the impossible happen." His first marriage, to Bernice Fitzmaurice in 1916, endured despite Mannix's extramarital affairs, a reality they grappled with due to their adherence to Catholicism. However, their union crumbled when Bernice filed for divorce in late 1937, accusing Mannix of physical abuse and citing his infidelity. Tragically, before the divorce proceedings could commence, Bernice met her demise in a car accident outside Palm Springs, California on November 18, 1937. Following Bernice's passing, Mannix began living with actress and Ziegfeld Follies dancer Toni Lanier, with whom he had been romantically involved. They married in May 1951, and remained so until Mannix's death in 1963. Mannix's involvement in the demise of actor George Reeves, renowned for portraying Superman in the series "Adventures of Superman," stirred suspicion. Reeves had engaged in an affair with Mannix's wife, Toni, starting in 1951. Astonishingly, Mannix purportedly condoned the liaison, which became common knowledge within Hollywood circles. Concurrently, Mannix maintained a prolonged extramarital relationship with a Japanese woman. Despite their Catholic beliefs, which eschewed divorce, Mannix and his wife continued their unconventional arrangement for several years. However, when Reeves terminated the affair and became engaged to socialite Leonore Lemmon in early 1959, Toni was devastated. Reeves' demise on June 16, 1959, (after a number of car accidents) from a gunshot wound to the head at his residence, sparked speculation. Although officially deemed a suicide, controversy enveloped the ruling, fuelled by rumours implicating Mannix. Whispers insinuated that Mannix, allegedly linked to organized crime, orchestrated Reeves' demise through a hired assassin. The biography "Hollywood Kryptonite," penned by Kashner and Schoenberger, presented a partially fictionalised account suggesting that Toni Lanier Mannix, leveraging her husband's purported criminal ties, orchestrated Reeves' demise. One of the most infamous incidents allegedly orchestrated by Mannix involved the death of Thelma Todd, a popular actress whose mysterious demise in 1935 sent shockwaves through Hollywood. Todd was found dead in her car, with speculation swirling about foul play. Despite the suspicious circumstances surrounding her death, Mannix reportedly worked to suppress any damaging information that could implicate powerful figures within the industry. One of Mannix's most intricate cover-ups remains shrouded in the annals of Old Hollywood history: the orchestrated adoption of Loretta Young's biological child, concealed for over six decades. The clandestine saga unfolds amidst the backdrop of Young's clandestine affair with her married co-star, Clark Gable, during the filming of "The Call of the Wild" in 1935. Their liaison led to Young's pregnancy, a scandalous predicament in an era where unwed motherhood was taboo. Mannix, the master manipulator, orchestrated a meticulously choreographed charade to shield Young from the repercussions of her pregnancy. Young vanished from the public eye, purportedly embarking on a journey across Europe, effectively eluding prying eyes for 19 months. Upon her return, Young unveiled a narrative of adoption, asserting that she had welcomed an orphaned child into her life. This elaborate façade endured for decades, carefully guarded from the prying eyes of the press and public alike. It wasn't until Young's daughter, Judy Lewis, reached the age of 23 that the truth unfurled. Young, burdened by the weight of deception, finally revealed the truth about Judy's birth, unravelling the tangled web of lies spun by Mannix decades prior. Despite his formidable reputation as a fixer, Mannix remained an elusive and enigmatic figure. Rarely granting interviews and shrouded in layers of mystery, he cultivated an aura of power and intimidation that permeated throughout Hollywood. Actor George Clooney, who portrayed Mannix in the film "Hail, Caesar!" aptly described him as "the scariest guy in Hollywood."

While the Victorian Era didn't mark the inception of institutionalising individuals with mental health issues, it undeniably witnessed a significant surge in the establishment of asylums and the number of patients residing within them. The exact cause of this escalation remains ambiguous—whether it stemmed from a surge in psychotic illnesses or a decline in societal tolerance towards the mentally unwell is uncertain. Nonetheless, numerous patients found themselves admitted under the purview of the Poor Law and Lunacy Acts during this period. The Lunacy Act 1845 was an important landmark in the treatment of the mentally ill, as it explicitly changed the status of mentally ill people to patients who required treatment. The act meant that counties were legally obliged to provide asylum for people with mental deficiencies. All asylums were required to have written regulations and to have a resident qualified physician. The mental asylum was the historical equivalent of the modern psychiatric hospital. The word asylum came from the earliest (religious) institutions which provided asylum in the sense of refuge to the mentally ill. Before asylums, people with mental illness or learning disabilities were cared for almost entirely by their families. Prior to admission to the asylums of the 1860s, comprehensive information about the patient was mandatory. This encompassed various details such as the patient's name, gender, and age, as well as marital status (whether married, single, or widowed), occupation, religious affiliation, history of previous attacks, age at the onset of the first attack, duration of the current ailment, presumed cause, presence of epilepsy, and any tendencies towards self-harm or posing a danger to others. Once admitted, there was no procedure for the patient to appeal against detention. They could, however, be discharged on the application of a relative or friend, as long as they confirmed that they would take proper care of the patient and prevent them from injuring themselves or others Despite the good intentions of the 1853 Act, it appears there was still plenty of scope to abuse the system. Unfortunately, for many, asylums were regarded as prisons disguised as hospitals. It was a convenient way to remove the poor and incurable from society and for those with money, private madhouses were often convenient dumping grounds for unwanted wives. Although many patients were admitted for short periods of time, there are plenty of stories of patients who were admitted to asylums, often for very unsatisfactory reasons, and basically forgotten about. Some could spend twenty or more years locked away, and sadly some patients died without ever being released. Reasons for admission were very much down to personal judgment and seem to have been heavily weighted against women. Indeed there were often many more women compared with men confined in these institutions. Depression associated with various situations seems to be a common reason for women being admitted to an asylum. Examples include valid reasons such as ‘death of sons in war’, ‘desertion or death of husbands’ and ‘domestic trouble’. Many other reasons, however, are much more spurious. For example, ‘imaginary female trouble’, ‘immoral life’ (often associated with carrying or delivering an illegitimate child), ‘menstrual problems’, ‘the menopause’, ‘uterine problems’, ‘female disease’ and ‘nymphomania’. ‘Hysteria’ is also cited as a reason for admission. This is, however, a subjective assessment and one that was easily abused. Women at the time were expected to be demure, polite, and agreeable to the men in their lives. Should a woman dare to speak out of turn or argue with her father or husband, however, she could be considered hysterical and in need of treatment. Equally worrying was that women were admitted if they had ‘over action of the mind’. This could be because they wanted to educate themselves, or for some, it may have been as simple as wanting to read. For example, ‘book reading’ is listed as a reason for admission to the Trans-Allegheny Lunatic Asylum in West Virginia. By the end of the 19th century, national systems of regulated asylums for the mentally ill had been established in most industrialised countries. At the turn of the century, Britain and France combined had only a few hundred people in asylums, but by the end of the century, this number had risen to the hundreds of thousands. The United States housed 150,000 patients in mental hospitals by 1904. Germany housed more than 400 public and private sector asylums. These asylums were critical to the evolution of psychiatry as they provided places of practice throughout the world. However, the hope that mental illness could be ameliorated through treatment during the mid-19th century was disappointed. Instead, psychiatrists were pressured by an ever-increasing patient population. The average number of patients in asylums in the United States jumped 927%. Numbers were similar in Britain and Germany. Overcrowding was rampant in France, where asylums would commonly take in double their maximum capacity. Increases in asylum populations may have been a result of the transfer of care from families and poorhouses, but the specific reasons as to why the increase occurred are still debated today No matter the cause, the pressure on asylums from the increase was taking its toll on the asylums and psychiatry as a specialty. Asylums were once again turning into custodial institutions and the reputation of psychiatry in the medical world had hit an extreme low.

On August 12, 1958, a remarkable event in the history of jazz and photography took place at 17 East 126th Street, between Fifth and Madison Avenue, in Harlem, New York. It was the day freelance photographer Art Kane, on commission from Esquire magazine, captured one of the most iconic images in jazz history. This photograph, known as “A Great Day in Harlem,” features 57 of the most influential jazz musicians of the time, creating a timeless snapshot of an era. The Conception of the Iconic Photograph The idea for the photograph did not originate with Kane but with Esquire’s art director, Robert Benton. However, it was Kane who brought the vision to life, choosing the location and orchestrating the shoot. Despite his lack of certainty about who would attend, Kane’s choice of location—a street in Harlem, historically a center for African-American culture and jazz—was a masterstroke. Harlem had been a hotbed of jazz in the 1940s, though by 1957 it had lost some of its musical vibrancy to Midtown Manhattan’s 52nd Street. Nonetheless, the location carried a powerful symbolic weight, representing the roots and soul of jazz. (From left) Eddie Locke, Jay C Higginbotham, Charles Mingus, Ernie Wilkins, Bill Crump. ‘ Front row, from left: Marian McPartland, Lawrence Brown, Emmett Berry, Mary Lou Williams (turned back to the camera), Vic Dickenson, Thelonious Monk. Top left, Oscar Pettiford Eddie Locke told me he rounded the corner of 126th Street … and nearly fainted. The giants of jazz! His heroes. Right there! Basie, Dizzy, Monk, Pres, The Hawk, Blakey, Joe Jones and on and on. Knees knocking, he said he almost fled … not feeling like he belonged in that gathering of titans. But then he spotted another young lion, Horace Silver, who he had gigged with, so he made his way over and stood with his friend, taking his place in that historic moment’ – Jonathan Kane (Art’s son) Front row, from left: Bill Crump, Stuff Smith, Sonny Rollins, Coleman Hawkins. At their back you can spot George Wettling, Bud Freeman, Pee Wee Russell, Buster Bailey, Oscar Pettiford. Behind them, Sonny Greer, Jimmy Jones, Charles Mingus, Osie Johnson Gathering the Legends Esquire’s staff issued a general invitation to jazz musicians through local unions, recording studios, music writers, and nightclub owners. The response was astounding. On that sunny August morning, 57 jazz musicians gathered, creating a unique assembly of talent that included legends like Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk, Charles Mingus, and Count Basie. The atmosphere was electric, filled with camaraderie and the shared legacy of jazz. Lester Young, Gerry Mulligan, Art Farmer, Gigi Gryce. The Photograph Kane used a Hasselblad camera to capture the image, which was published as the centerfold in the January 1959 issue of Esquire, themed “The Golden Age of Jazz.” The photograph earned Kane his first Art Directors Club of New York gold medal for photography, cementing its place in both photographic and musical history. The composition of the photograph is a study in both spontaneity and structure. The musicians are casually arranged on the steps and sidewalk, some standing, some sitting, others chatting, laughing, or holding their instruments. This seemingly informal arrangement belies the complexity of the task Kane faced in coordinating such a large group. The result is a vibrant tapestry of personalities, each contributing to the collective aura of the jazz community. ‘Black and white: two colours forbidden to be in close proximity, yet captured so beautifully within a single black and white frame. The importance of this photo transcends time and location, leaving it to become not only a symbolic piece of art but a piece of history’ – Quincy Jones From left; Benny Golson, Sonny Rollins, Thelonious Monk. ‘There was going to be an unusual shooting of a photograph for Esquire Magazine and I was being invited to be a part of it. I couldn’t believe it! Nobody really knew me that early in my career. But zippo, I was there on the intended date. When I arrived, there were all of my heroes’ – Benny Golson Luckey Roberts, Willie ‘The Lion’ Smith Anachronism and Nostalgia The photograph represents something of an anachronism. By 1958, Harlem was no longer the epicenter of jazz it had been in previous decades. Many musicians had moved to other parts of New York, pursuing opportunities in more affluent neighborhoods or more vibrant music scenes. Yet, the image evokes a deep sense of nostalgia, capturing a moment of unity and celebration among the jazz greats, regardless of the changing geographical and cultural landscape of the music. Front row, from left: Stuff Smith, Marian McPartland, Miff Mole, Gene Krupa, Jimmy Rushing, Roy Eldridge, Max Kaminsky, Hilton Jefferson. Laughing on the right, up the stairs, is Dizzy Gillespie. ‘It would be sort of a graduation photo or class picture of all the jazz musicians. After I thought about it some more I decided they should get together in Harlem. After all, that’s where jazz started when it came to New York’ – Art Kane Dizzy Gillespie crossing the street with a camera. ‘ The fact that all 57 musicians agreed to show up for a 10am photoshoot is a true testament to how dedicated they were. These musicians did not gather together on this early morning because they thought they would be paid or instantly be made an international superstar. Rather, they did it to celebrate the golden age of jazz and all that it stood for. Jazz was never just a genre, it was a way of life. And it still is’ – Quincy Jones ‘I have no idea how they decided to stand where they did, and with whom, but they did. Slowly they formed themselves into a big group … and I saw they couldn’t have got themselves into a better position’ – Art Kane Count Basie’s hat was repeatedly stolen by local kids until Kane surrendered and put them in the shot too. ‘So here you have a non-professional photographer, who’s got an assistant who’s never loaded a camera before, taking this picture which 30 years later is probably the best-known group photograph ever taken of jazz musicians’ – Art Kane

The Zangaki brothers were a pair of Greek photographers operating in Egypt during the late 1870s to the 1890s, crafting prints tailored for the burgeoning tourist market. Despite creating some of the era's most exquisite depictions of Victorian Egypt, scant details are available about their lives. While they are presumed to be Greek Cypriots, speculation exists that they hailed from Crete. Prior to the emergence of their photographic works in Egypt, little is documented about their backgrounds, including their actual names. It has been proposed that their initials were "C" and "G", supported by the discovery of early 20th-century photographic postcards bearing the name "C Zangaki". According to Alkis X. Xanthakis in his work "Zangaki Brothers" (Optikon, 1995), the siblings hailed from Milos, a Greek island, and were named Georgios and Konstantinos. However, their photographs were commonly attributed simply to "Zangaki". Compounding this, the letter "Z" in their signature was frequently misinterpreted as a stylized "L" in various publications, leading to their work being mistakenly credited to "Langaki". Until fairly recently, the assumption prevailed that there was a single photographer known as "A Zangaki". However, this changed with the discovery of a signboard inscribed with "Adelphoi Zangaki", confirming that the photographs were indeed the collaborative efforts of the Zangaki brothers. While their Greek, Cypriot, or Cretan origins are affirmed, they travelled along the Nile with a horse-drawn darkroom labelled "Zangaki Brothers". Adding to the complexity, the majority of their images were titled in French on the negatives. Among their notable works are photographs captured after the 1882 bombardment of Alexandria, along with insightful reflections on the popularity of the Grand Tour of Egypt during the 1880s. Their portfolio encompassed diverse scenes, ranging from views of the pyramids like Cheops and the Sphinx to urban landscapes such as Suez or Alexandria. Additionally, they depicted Egyptians engaged in daily activities, including a teacher with pupils, men along the Nile, and women at home.

The assassination of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, remains one of the most enduring mysteries in American history. Over the years, countless theories and speculations have emerged, each attempting to shed light on the events of that fateful day in Dallas, Texas. Among the intriguing figures connected to the assassination is David Ferrie, a complex character whose ties to Lee Harvey Oswald, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the broader conspiracy landscape continue to captivate researchers and historians. Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Ferrie was raised in a Roman Catholic household and attended various educational institutions, including St. Ignatius High School, John Carroll University, and St. Mary's Seminary, where he studied for the priesthood. He also spent time at Baldwin Wallace College and the St. Charles Seminary in Carthagena, Ohio, before leaving due to emotional instability. Ferrie's career path took various turns, including obtaining a pilot's license and teaching aeronautics at Benedictine High School in Cleveland. However, he was dismissed from his teaching position due to misconduct, including taking students to a house of prostitution. He later worked as an insurance inspector before relocating to New Orleans in 1951, where he worked as a pilot for Eastern Air Lines until his dismissal in 1961. Throughout his life, Ferrie was involved with the Civil Air Patrol (CAP), serving as an instructor and commander in New Orleans. His involvement with the CAP continued even after he left his official squadron due to disagreements. He eventually started his own unofficial squadron, the Metairie Falcon Cadet Squadron, where he engaged in inappropriate relationships with teenage boys. Politically, Ferrie described himself as a liberal on civil rights issues but was vehemently anti-Communist. He initially supported Fidel Castro's campaign against Fulgencio Batista in Cuba but later became convinced that Castro was a Communist. He actively participated in anti-Castro activities, collaborating with right-wing Cuban exiles and engaging in raids on munitions depots. Ferrie's associations extended to individuals such as Guy Banister, a former FBI agent and right-wing political activist, with whom he worked on various projects, including assisting Carlos Marcello, a New Orleans Mafia boss, in legal matters. There were also allegations of Ferrie's involvement in flying Marcello back into the United States from Guatemala after he was deported. Despite his various involvements, Ferrie's life was marred by controversy and legal troubles, including arrests on morals charges and accusations of crimes against nature and extortion. His activities leading up to the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in 1963 raised suspicions and speculation about his potential involvement in conspiracy theories surrounding the event. The FBI and Secret Service took an interest in Ferrie shortly after the Kennedy assassination, as early as November 25, 1963. On that day, Ferrie and two other individuals were arrested and booked for vagrancy by the New Orleans district attorney's office. They were held for investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Secret Service but were released the following day. First Assistant District Attorney Frank Klein, who questioned Ferrie along with investigators, declined to comment on the case. In the aftermath of Kennedy's assassination on November 22, 1963, tensions were high. On that very day, New Orleans private investigator Guy Banister and one of his associates, Jack Martin, were involved in a violent altercation. Following this incident, Martin made several claims implicating Ferrie in the assassination. He suggested that Ferrie may have been the getaway pilot and alleged that Ferrie had threatened Kennedy's life in the past. Martin also claimed that Ferrie had connections to Lee Harvey Oswald from their time together in the New Orleans Civil Air Patrol. Jim Garrison, 1967 Martin's allegations sparked further investigation, with the FBI interviewing Ferrie twice about the claims. Ferrie denied any involvement in the assassination and stated that he had no recollection of ever meeting Oswald. He attributed Martin's accusations to personal animosity, stating that Martin had harassed him since their falling out earlier in the year. Despite the FBI's inability to develop a substantial case against Ferrie based on Martin's claims, the accusations continued to circulate. Jim Garrison, the district attorney of New Orleans, became interested in the case and conducted his own investigation. Garrison believed that Ferrie, along with other individuals, including Guy Banister and Clay Shaw, were part of a conspiracy to assassinate Kennedy. He alleged that Ferrie and his associates had ties to the CIA and were motivated by anger over Kennedy's foreign policy decisions. As Garrison continued h is investigation, he became convinced that a group of right-wing extremists, including Ferrie, Banister, and Clay Shaw, were involved in a conspiracy with elements of the CIA to kill Kennedy. Garrison later claimed that the motive for the assassination was anger over Kennedy's attempts to obtain a peace settlement in both Cuba and Vietnam. Garr ison also believed that Shaw, Banister, and Ferrie had conspired to set up Oswald as a patsy in the JFK assassination Clay Shaw On February 22, 1967, just days after the New Orleans States-Item newspaper broke the story of Garrison's investigation, Ferrie was discovered deceased in his apartment. Among his belongings were two typed letters, both unsigned and undated. One letter, discovered among a pile of papers, contained a despairing reflection on the justice system, expressing a desire to leave life behind, beginning with "To leave this life is, for me, a sweet prospect. I find nothing in it that is desirable and on the other hand, everything that is loathsome." The second letter was addressed to Al Beauboeuf, Ferrie's friend, to whom he left all his possessions. Garrison initially labeled Ferrie's death as a suicide but did not rule out the possibility of murder. Lou Ivon, Garrison's aide, recounted a conversation with Ferrie the day after the news of the investigation broke. Ferrie allegedly expressed a sense of impending doom, declaring himself a dead man. The autopsy on Ferrie was conducted by Orleans Parish coroner Nicholas Chetta and pathologist Ronald A. Welsh. Their findings indicated that Ferrie died of a massive cerebral hemorrhage caused by a congenital intracranial berry aneurysm, which had ruptured at the base of his brain. Despite the coroner's conclusion, Garrison remained skeptical, suggesting that it could be a strange coincidence that Ferrie wrote two suicide notes on the same night he died of natural causes. "I suppose it could just be a weird coincidence that the night Ferrie penned two suicide notes, he died of natural causes." - Jim Garrison Following the coroner's report, Garrison proceeded with his investigation and on March 1, 1967, had Shaw arrested and charged with conspiring to assassinate Kennedy. Journalists Jack Wardlaw and Rosemary James co-authored the book "Plot or Politics" in 1967, which critiqued Garrison's investigation. Wardlaw's reporting on Ferrie's death earned him an Associated Press award. During an initial interview with the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) in 1978, Delphine Roberts, a close associate of Banister, initially denied ever seeing Oswald. However, in a subsequent interview, she contradicted herself, claiming she had indeed seen Oswald in Banister's office multiple times. Roberts recalled seeing Oswald first when he applied for a job in the summer of 1963 and later when he visited with his wife, Marina. According to Roberts, Oswald had interviewed for an "undercover agent" position, and she alleged that both Oswald and Ferrie, whom she identified as a "detective agent" for Banister, attended an anti-Castro training camp for rifle practice. The HSCA investigated Roberts's statements but found inconsistencies and lacked independent corroboration, thus casting doubt on their reliability. In its Final Report in 1979, the HSCA stated that Oswald, who resided in New Orleans in the summer of 1963, had established connections with anti-Castro Cubans and allegedly with Ferrie, an American anti-Castro activist. The Committee considered the testimony of six witnesses who claimed to have seen Oswald and Ferrie together in Clinton, Louisiana, in September 1963 as "credible and significant." Among these witnesses was Corrie Collins, the chairman of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), who described Ferrie's distinctive appearance at the trial of Clay Shaw. However, subsequent releases of witness statements taken by Garrison's investigators in 1967 revealed contradictions in their testimonies, undermining their reliability. For instance, Collins initially could not pinpoint Ferrie's whereabouts but later placed him with Shaw and Oswald at the trial. Additionally, the HSCA noted that available records suggested Oswald and David Ferrie might have been part of the same Civil Air Patrol unit during the same period. Committee investigators identified six witnesses who claimed Oswald attended Civil Air Patrol meetings led by Ferrie. In 1993, the PBS television program Frontline acquired a group photograph taken eight years prior to the assassination, revealing Oswald and Ferrie among other Civil Air Patrol cadets at a cookout. Frontline's executive producer, Michael Sullivan, advised caution in interpreting its significance. David Ferrie (second from left) and a teenage Lee Harvey Oswald (far right) in a group photo of the New Orleans Civil Air Patrol in 1955 While the photo lent credence to eyewitness accounts of Ferrie and Oswald's association within the CAP, Sullivan emphasised that it did not conclusively establish their presence together in 1963 or implicate them in a conspiracy to assassinate the president. John Ciravolo, the owner of the photo, remarked to author Patricia Lambert that he himself appeared in the picture and speculated that Ferrie likely wouldn't remember him either. Author John C. McAdams similarly noted that the photo didn't confirm any direct interaction between Ferrie and Oswald, but merely indicated their simultaneous membership in the organisation. Ferrie as he was found Even after his death, David Ferrie's legacy endures within the realm of conspiracy theories and historical speculation. His connection to Lee Harvey Oswald and participation in anti-Castro efforts persist in sparking discussions and theories about the Kennedy assassination. Although numerous questions remain unresolved, Ferrie's life highlights the complexities and ambiguities tied to one of the most significant events in American history. Sources https://www.archives.gov/files/research/jfk/releases/104-10170-10158.pdf https://www.nytimes.com/1967/02/24/archives/death-of-ferrie-called-natural-autopsy-doctor-rules-out-suicide-in.html https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1967/02/25/le-mystere-s-epaissit-autour-de-la-mort-de-david-ferrie_2621653_1819218.html https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP75B00380R000800140028-3.pdf